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This document provides a study guide on various psychological concepts and theories. The content covers topics including the psychoanalytic theory, humanistic theory, behaviorism, and different types of psychological disorders. It also discusses the structure of the brain and nervous system.
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Hippocrates • Classical Greek physician known as the “Father of Medicine” for his contributions • E.g., systematic categorization of diseases • Was ahead of his time in having a biological orientation toward understanding abnormal behavior • Linked abnormality with brain chemical imbalances (like n...
Hippocrates • Classical Greek physician known as the “Father of Medicine” for his contributions • E.g., systematic categorization of diseases • Was ahead of his time in having a biological orientation toward understanding abnormal behavior • Linked abnormality with brain chemical imbalances (like neurotransmitters discussed in Chapter 2) • However, also had some highly inaccurate views • Hysteria = “the wandering uterus”, was thought to be the result of the uterus moving around in a woman’s body Theories of abnormal behavior • Psychoanalytic theory (Freud) • Humanistic theory (Maslow, Rogers) • Behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner) Psychoanalytic theory • Lasting contribution is the recognition that much of psychic like is not consciously experienced • Structure of the mind in psychoanalytic theory: • Id – pleasure principle, unconscious drives • Ego – rational, mediator • Superego – morals/norms Defense Mechanisms in Psychoanalytic theory • Defense mechanism = ego’s attempt to manage anxiety of conflict between the id and superego • Seven defense mechanisms to know: • Displacement – redirecting thoughts and feelings about one person/object toward another person • Denial – refusal to accept reality • Rationalization – offering different explanations for one’s thoughts or behaviors • Reaction formation– converting unwanted thoughts into their opposite • Projection – misattributing undesired feelings or thoughts onto another person • Repression – unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts • Sublimation - channeling undesired thoughts and feelings into more acceptable ones Humanistic theory • Major themes are that people are essentially good and striving toward selfactualization • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Behaviorism • Pioneered scientific approach to studying psychology and psychopathology • Classical conditioning vs. operant conditioning Prevalence and Incidence • Prevalence = the total number of individuals in a population who have a disease or health condition during a broad time period, usually expressed as a percentage of the population. • Incidence = the number of individuals who develop a specific disease or experience a specific health-related event during a particular time period (such as a month or year). Structure of the brain • Hindbrain • Cerebellum, pons, medulla • Midbrain • Thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus • Forebrain • Cerebral cortex The Nervous System Neurons and Neurotransmitters • Neurons = primary components of the nervous system, communicate with one another electrochemically • Neurotransmitters = chemicals sent across synapses to either excite or inhibit activation in other neurons Neurotransmitters to know • Dopamine – “reward” chemical important for learning, but also associated with certain psychopathologies (ADHD, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease) • Serotonin – influences many things, including mood and behavior • SSRIs – antidepressant, increases postsynaptic serotonin absorption by blocking presynaptic serotonin reuptake • Norepinephrine – involved in alarm responses and unconscious bodily process (e.g., breathing) • Glutamate - main excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system • GABA - main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system Diathesis-Stress Model • Diathesis = an individual’s baseline (i.e., inherited) tendency or condition that makes them susceptible to developing a disorder. • Stress = conditions or stressors in an environment that can trigger a disorder • Psychopathology emerges from the interaction of an inherited tendency and events in an individual’s life. • Ex: drug use and emergence of schizophrenia Learned helplessness • Studies originally conducted by Martin Seligman • In laboratory studies, created aversive stimuli (e.g., electrical shocks) for animals that the animals could not control • Results in decreased motivation and behavior to change one’s circumstances Approaches to diagnostic classification • Classical categorical approach – strict categories, one either has a psychopathology or they do not (black & white approach) • E.g., early versions of the DSM • Dimensional approach – classifications along dimensions, one can demonstrate some aspects of a psychopathology but not others • E.g., neurodiversity, challenges to current DSM • Prototypical approach – combines aspects of both classical categorial and dimensional approaches • E.g., the current DSM-V (which is largely similar to the DSM-IV) Clinical interviews • Structured or semi-structured interview conducted by a mental health professional familiar with diagnostic criteria • Used to assess patients and/or make a diagnosis • E.g., Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID) Types of psychological testing • Projective tests – based in psychoanalytic tradition, attempt to assess unconscious processes • E.g., Thematic apperception tests (TAT) • Mixed evidence of validity and reliability • Objective & Personality tests – roots in empirical tradition, minimal clinical expertise required to disseminate and score • E.g., IQ tests, MMPI for personality, Big 5 • Neuropsychological tests – assess broad range of skills and abilities to understand brain-behavior connections • E.g., tests of attention, memory, and motor skills in individuals suspected of having dementia Research designs Statistical vs Clinical significance • Statistical significance = claim about the likelihood that a research finding was due to chance/randomness • If a research finding is statistically significant, it means that it was unlikely to have resulted from mere chance • Clinical significance = claim about the meaningfulness & applicability of a given research finding • If a research finding is clinically significant, it means that it would be impactful in treating patients • Examples from clinical research on MDMA and magic mushrooms as treatments for certain psychopathologies • Sometimes statistical & clinical significance are aligned (e.g., large effect size), sometimes they are not (e.g., small effect size) Anxiety Disorders Anxiety, fear, and panic ● Often used interchangeably, but are characterized quite differently Similarities: ○ Characterized by negative affect ○ Often result in avoidant behaviors ○ Accompanied with physical symptoms Anxiety Disorders Anxiety, fear, and panic Differences: Anxiety ● Future-oriented ● Somatic feeling of tension Panic attack Fear ● Fear occurring at ● Present-oriented inappropriate time ● Strong activation of sympathetic system ● E.g., absence of stimulus in response to stimulus Anxiety Disorders Anxiety, fear, and panic ● Causes = Childhood development may play a role ○ Uncertainty in childhood ○ Fear/anxiety as learned responses ● Comorbidity is common across anxiety disorders ○ Most commonly Major Depressive Disorder Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) ● Characterized by extreme worry and difficulty controlling worry ● More common in females ● Treatment includes: ○ Psychological interventions (CBT) ○ Pharmacotherapy (e.g., benzodiazepines) ○ Meditation therapy Anxiety Disorders Panic Disorder ● Characterized by experiencing unexpected panic attacks, and fear of future attacks ● Common comorbidity with agoraphobia ● More common in females ● Treatments: ○ Psychological (Panic Control Treatment = CBT for panic) ○ Pharmacotherapy (SSRIs or benzodiazepines) ○ CBT therapies are most effective Anxiety Disorders Specific phobias ● Characterized by irrational fear of an object or situation that interferes with ability to function ● More common in females ● Treatments: ○ CBT therapies with exposure Anxiety Disorders Social phobias ● Characterized by fear or discomfort in social situations that often leads to avoidance ● More common in females ● Treatments: ○ CBT therapies are highly effective ○ Pharmacotheraphy (SSRIs or benzodiazepines) Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders PTSD, acute stress, adjustment and attachment disorders ● Shared origin = life stressors ● New classification to DSM-5 Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders PTSD ● Characterized by response to trauma exposure, including flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance, emotional numbing, and interpersonal problems ● Diagnosed when symptoms persist for more than one month following trauma ● Social support post-trauma reduces risk of developing PTSD Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders Acute Stress Disorder ● Similar to PTSD, but occurs immediately following trauma, and lasts up to one month Obsessive Compulsive Disorders OCD ● Obsessions = intrusive thoughts, images, or urges ● Compulsions = thoughts or actions to neutralize anxious thoughts ● Equal gender distribution ● Treatments: ○ CBT with exposure component is highly effective ○ Pharmacotherapy (SSRIs) Somatic Symptom Disorders Somatic Symptom Disorder ● Characterized by presence of symptoms without medical explanation ● Onset = adolescents ● Causes = sensitivity to physical sensations, life stressors, family history of illness ● Treatment = CBT Somatic Symptom Disorders Illness Anxiety Disorder ● Characterized by physical complaints with no known cause and severe anxiety of a serious disease ● Onset = any age ● Causes = cognitive perceptual distortions, family history of illness ● Treatment = CBT, stress management, possible medication (antidepressants) Somatic Symptom Disorders Conversion Disorder ● Characterized by malfunctioning sensory or motor skills without known pathology ● Onset = adolescence ● Causes not well known ● Treatment = similar to Somatic Symptom Disorder (mostly CBT) Somatic Symptom Disorders Factitious Disorder ● Characterized by purposefully faking symptoms ● Different from malingering → with this disorder, there are no clear external gains ● May be externally induced → a caregiver induces symptoms in a child Dissociative Disorders Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) ● Characterized by dissociation from identity and adoption of several new identities ● Much more common in females ● Onset = childhood or adolescence ● Causes = linked to childhood trauma or chronic trauma; mechanism to escape trauma ● Treatment = confront trauma, reintegrate identities Dissociative Disorders Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) ● Characterized by dissociation from identity and adoption of several new identities ● Much more common in females ● Onset = childhood or adolescence ● Causes = linked to childhood trauma or chronic trauma; mechanism to escape trauma ● Treatment = confront trauma, reintegrate identities