Introduction to International Relations PDF

Introduction to International Relations Zoya Sultana Junior Lecturer Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology Content CONCEPT OF STATE THE STATE SYSTEM CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY STATE POWER STATE INTERESTS Natio...

Introduction to International Relations Zoya Sultana Junior Lecturer Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology Content CONCEPT OF STATE THE STATE SYSTEM CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY STATE POWER STATE INTERESTS Nation and State Nation: Think of a nation as a group of people who share a common identity, like language, culture, or ethnicity. For example, the Japanese people share a common language (Japanese) and cultural practices, making them a nation. State: A state is a political entity with a defined territory and government. For instance, Japan as a country has a government that controls its territory and makes laws. Nation-State A nation-state is when the cultural boundaries of a nation align with the political boundaries of a state. For example, Japan is a nation-state because the Japanese nation (people with a common culture and language) largely coincides with the state of Japan (the political entity).  History and Origin of the Nation- State: The Peace of Westphalia The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe and is often considered the beginning of the modern nation-state system. Here’s a simplified version of what happened: Thirty Years’ War: This war started as a religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire but grew into a larger political struggle involving many European powers. Devastation: The war caused massive destruction, especially in Germany, with significant loss of life and economic damage. Peace Agreements: The peace treaties signed in Westphalia (Münster and Osnabrück) redrew the map of Europe to create a new balance of power. Key outcomes included: Weakened Hapsburgs: The power of the ruling Hapsburg family was reduced. Rise of France: France emerged as a dominant power. Sovereignty: The treaties established the principle of state sovereignty, meaning each state had authority over its territory without external interference. Key Principles of the Westphalian Order Secularization: Politics was separated from religion, focusing instead on national interests. Sovereignty: States were recognized as having supreme authority within their territories. Legal Equality: All states, regardless of size or power, were considered legally equal and had the right to manage their own affairs.  Example Imagine a classroom where each student represents a state. Before the Peace of Westphalia, the teacher (representing a central religious authority) had control over all students. After the Peace of Westphalia, each student (state) could make their own decisions without the teacher’s interference, as long as they respected the same rights for other students.  Spread of Westphalian Principles Over the last 350 years, the ideas from the Peace of Westphalia have spread beyond Europe to influence global politics. These ideas include state sovereignty and legal equality among states. Globalization and Fragmentation Globalization: This is like the world becoming a big village where people, goods, and ideas move freely across borders. For example, you can buy a smartphone made in China, designed in the USA, and sold in Pakistan. Fragmentation: Despite globalization, there are forces pulling people apart, such as regional conflicts or cultural differences. For instance, while the internet connects people globally, local traditions and languages still create distinct communities. Cosmopolitan vs. Parochial Cosmopolitan: This means being open to different cultures and ideas. For example, a city like New York is cosmopolitan because it has people from all over the world. Parochial: This means being focused on local or narrow interests. For example, a small village that resists outside influences to preserve its traditional way of life. Non-State Actors Non-State Actors: These are powerful groups that are not countries but still influence global politics. Examples include multinational corporations like Google or NGOs like the Red Cross. Transnational Governance Transnational Governance: This involves various organizations working across borders to manage global issues. For example, the United Nations (UN) brings together countries to address international problems like climate change.  Example Imagine a school where each classroom represents a country. Initially, each classroom (country) operates independently based on the teacher’s (government’s) rules. Over time, students (people) start interacting more with students from other classrooms through sports, clubs, and social media (globalization). However, some students prefer to stick with their own classmates and traditions (fragmentation). Additionally, the school now has clubs (non-state actors) like the Science Club or Drama Club that influence students’ activities beyond their classrooms. The school administration (transnational governance) tries to coordinate these activities to ensure everyone benefits. Sovereignty: The Basics Sovereignty means that a state has the ultimate authority within its own borders and is recognized as an equal by other states. This concept has two main aspects: Internal Sovereignty: The state has supreme power within its territory. For example, the government of Pakistan can make laws and decisions for its people without interference from other countries. External Sovereignty: The state is recognized by other states as an equal member of the international community. For instance, Pakistan is recognized as a sovereign state by the United Nations and other countries. Sovereignty also means that states should not interfere in each other’s internal affairs. For example, it would be against international norms for one country to try to change the government of another country by force.  Changes in Sovereignty over Time 1960s Onwards From the 1960s, the idea that states could maintain absolute sovereignty started to be questioned. This was due to several factors: Globalization: The world became more interconnected through trade, communication, and travel. For example, multinational companies like Apple or Google operate in many countries, influencing local economies and policies. Humanitarian Interventions: There were increasing calls for interventions in countries where human rights were being violated. For instance, international interventions in conflicts like those in Bosnia or Rwanda aimed to stop atrocities, even if it meant interfering in a sovereign state. (NATO conducted airstrikes and the UN deployed peacekeeping forces to protect civilians and enforce peace agreements.) 1990s and Beyond End of the Cold War: With the Cold War ending, there was a push for democratization and human rights, often led by Western countries. European Union (EU): The EU’s integration process meant that member states shared sovereignty in certain areas, like trade and immigration. For example, EU countries follow common rules and regulations, which can limit their individual sovereignty. Poststructuralist View Poststructuralists argue that the traditional concept of sovereignty doesn’t fit the modern world. They believe that: Politics and Sovereignty Need Redefinition: The clear-cut boundaries of the Westphalian era (where states had absolute control within their borders) no longer apply. For example, issues like climate change or cyber security require cooperation beyond national borders. Complex Interactions: States are now part of a complex web of relationships involving non-state actors like international organizations, NGOs, and multinational corporations. Example Imagine a neighborhood where each house represents a country. Traditionally, each house (country) had its own rules and no one interfered with another’s household (sovereignty). Over time, the neighbors started sharing resources, like a community garden (globalization), and intervening if there was a problem, like helping a neighbor in distress (humanitarian intervention). Some houses even formed a club with shared rules (EU), which meant they gave up some control to benefit from the club’s advantages. Evolution of International Society Post-Cold War Changes Since the end of the Cold War, the focus on state-centric political and military rivalries has decreased. Instead, other aspects of global life, such as information technology, have become more important. Definition of International Society International society refers to a group of states that interact with each other, share common goals, and follow certain rules. European International Society: The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 marked the beginning of a European society of states. This new system replaced the medieval Christian Republic and established modern secular states.  Today, international society includes not just states but also international organizations, corporations, and other non-state actors. For example, the United Nations (UN) brings together countries to address global issues, while multinational corporations operate across borders, influencing economies and policies. Example Imagine a neighborhood where each house represents a country. Initially, some houses (empires) controlled large areas and imposed their rules on others. Over time, the neighborhood developed a system where each house (state) had its own rules but agreed on common practices for interacting, like respecting each other’s boundaries and resolving disputes through discussion (diplomatic institutions). The Modern State System It was created as a result of Treaty of Westphalia (1648). There are other historical moments which include: 1. Renaissance 2. Reformation 3. Scientific Revolution 4. Enlightment 5. Age of revolution 1. The Renaissance The Renaissance was a period of significant social and cultural change in Europe, spanning from the 14th to the 16th centuries. It began in Italy and spread across Europe. During this time, Italy was made up of independent city-states, each ruled by powerful families, rather than being a unified country.  Key Changes During the Renaissance Art Before: Medieval art focused more on symbolism and religious themes. During the Renaissance: Art became more realistic and lifelike, with a focus on perspective and human anatomy. For example, Leonardo da Vinci’s “Vitruvian Man” shows detailed knowledge of human anatomy. Literature Before: Medieval literature often focused on religious and metaphysical subjects. During the Renaissance: Writers looked back to Ancient Greece and Rome, focusing more on human characteristics and behaviors. The invention of the printing press in the 1440s made books more accessible, greatly impacting education. Philosophy Before: The Catholic Church was the main influence on people’s thoughts and beliefs. During the Renaissance: Humanism emerged, emphasizing reason and the physical characteristics of humans rather than spirituality. This shift paved the way for the Enlightenment. For example, humanists like Erasmus promoted the idea that humans could improve themselves through education. Science Before: Scientific knowledge was limited and often based on religious teachings. During the Renaissance: There were major advancements in anatomy, astronomy, and physics. For example, Galileo Galilei improved the telescope and made significant astronomical discoveries. Example Imagine a small town where everyone follows the same old traditions and beliefs (Medieval period). One day, a group of people starts exploring new ideas and looking back at ancient wisdom (Renaissance). They begin to create more realistic art, write about human experiences, think critically about the world, and make scientific discoveries. This transforms the town into a place of innovation and learning.  2. The Reformation The Reformation was a major religious revolution in the 16th century that divided Western European Christians into Protestants and Catholics. This conflict had profound effects, marking the beginning of the Modern Age by shifting people’s focus from religious unity to regional interests, leading to new political, social, and economic changes. Background of the Revolt The Catholic Church in the 16th Century Dominance: At the start of the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion in Western Europe. The Catholic Church was very powerful and wealthy, playing a key role in preserving classical culture. Internal Issues: Despite efforts to reform, the Church faced internal disputes and lax practices. Some churchmen began to criticize the Church’s administration and question its teachings.  Example Imagine a large school where all students follow the same rules set by a single authority (the Catholic Church). Over time, some students (reformers) start questioning these rules and propose new ones. This leads to the formation of different groups (Protestants and Catholics) with their own rules and interests. The school (Europe) is no longer unified under one set of rules, leading to new ways of organizing and thinking. Conclusion The Reformation was a turning point in history that led to significant religious, political, and social changes in Europe. It marked the transition from a unified religious society to one with diverse regional interests and new political structures. 3. Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution was a period of major advancements in science during the early modern period, transforming views on society and nature. It began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the Enlightenment. Key Phases and Figures Scientific Renaissance: This phase focused on rediscovering ancient knowledge. For example, Galileo’s work challenged the geocentric model (Earth at the center) and supported the heliocentric model (Sun at the center). Grand Synthesis: Isaac Newton’s “Principia” in 1687 formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, completing the Scientific Revolution. For instance, Newton’s laws explained how objects move and interact, which was a huge leap in understanding physics. 4.Enlightenment The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual movement from the 1620s to the 1780s that emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism over traditional authority. Key Ideas and Figures Reason and Analysis: Enlightenment thinkers promoted the use of reason and scientific methods to understand the world. For example, philosophers like John Locke argued for the rights of individuals and the importance of empirical evidence. Challenging Authority: The movement challenged institutions like the Roman Catholic Church. Spread of Ideas: Increased literacy and publications like Denis Diderot’s “Encyclopédie” spread Enlightenment ideas. These ideas influenced events like the French Revolution, which sought to reform society based on Enlightenment principles. 5. Age of Revolution The Age of Revolution (approximately 1775-1848) was marked by significant revolutionary movements in Europe and the Americas, leading to the transition from absolutist monarchies to constitutional states and republics. Key Revolutions American Revolution: The Thirteen Colonies in North America fought for independence from British rule, leading to the formation of the United States. French Revolution: This revolution overthrew the monarchy in France and led to the rise of republicanism and the spread of revolutionary ideas across Europe. Haitian Revolution: Enslaved Africans in Haiti revolted against French colonial rule, leading to the first successful slave rebellion and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation. Latin American Independence Movements: Various colonies in Latin America fought for and gained independence from European powers. Example Imagine a classroom where students (countries) are initially under strict control by a few teachers (monarchies). Over time, students start questioning the rules and seeking more freedom (Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment). Eventually, some students lead successful movements to change the way the classroom is run, establishing new rules and systems (Age of Revolution).  Power Power, in its broadest sense, is the ability to influence the outcome of events. It is an ability to use force. In global politics, this includes the ability of a country to conduct its own affairs without the interference of other countries, It is an ability of the person to produce intended effects on others When we say A is more powerful than B. It means B will act according to wishes of A. It denotes/ means the ability of a person to fulfill his desire or to achieve his objectives. Power is generally thought to involve bringing about of an action by someone against the will or desire of another. A powerful person creates situation when you do not have an option but to follow the wishes of the powerful person. Where does power come from? (Formal Sources) Coercive: Ability to punish, use of fear Rewards: Control over rewards Legitimate: Based on position Information: Access to or control of Concept of Power - Power - the ability to influence another person - Influence - the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another person - Authority - the right to influence another person State Power Definition: State power refers to the ability of a state to influence or control events and outcomes both within its borders and in the international arena. It encompasses various forms of power, including military, economic, political, and cultural power. Types of Power: Military Power Economic Power Political Power, and Cultural Power  Military power: The military, also called the armed forces, are forces authorized to use deadly force, and weapons, to support the interests of the state and some or all of its citizens. The task of the military is usually defined as defense of the state and its citizens, and the prosecution of war against another state. Military power may refer to: The armed forces of a nation (in a narrow sense) or in the wider sense, the capabilities of a group such as a fire team, squad, etc. A great power, in a military context. Military power (jet engines), the maximum power setting of a military jet aircraft without the use of afterburners. Changes in Military Capabilities Growing Militarization: United States: The U.S. has significantly increased its defense budget, focusing on modernizing its nuclear arsenal and developing advanced technologies like hypersonic missiles and cyber warfare capabilities. Non-State Actors: Groups like ISIS have acquired sophisticated weapons, including drones and improvised explosive devices (IEDs), enhancing their operational capabilities. Widespread Weapons Production: Global South: Countries like Brazil and India have developed indigenous weapons production capabilities. For instance, India produces its own fighter jets (Tejas) and tanks (Arjun). Terrorist Organizations: Groups such as Hezbollah have been known to manufacture their own rockets and drones. Arms Market Changes: Open Market: Countries like Russia and China are major arms exporters, supplying weapons to various states and non-state actors. For example, Russia has sold advanced air defense systems (S-400) to countries like Turkey and India. Clandestine Market: The black market for arms has grown, with weapons being smuggled across borders to conflict zones. For instance, Libyan arms have been found in the hands of militants in Mali. Destructiveness of Modern Weapons: Advanced Missiles: The development of hypersonic missiles by countries like Russia (Avangard) and China (DF-ZF) has increased the potential destructiveness of modern warfare. Cyber Weapons: Cyber attacks, such as the Stuxnet virus used against Iran’s nuclear program, demonstrate the destructive potential of modern cyber warfare. Private Military Services: Contractors in Iraq: During the Iraq War, private military companies like Blackwater (now Academi) provided security services and conducted operations, allowing the U.S. to reduce its troop deployments. Trends in the Weapons Trade Cold War Arms Trade: U.S. and Soviet Union: Both superpowers supplied arms to their allies, with the U.S. providing weapons to NATO countries and the Soviet Union arming Warsaw Pact states. Post-Cold War Continuation: Global Terrorism Era: The arms trade continued to thrive, with countries like Saudi Arabia and India becoming major arms importers. For example, Saudi Arabia has purchased advanced fighter jets and missile systems from the U.S. and Europe. Major Importers: Top Importers India, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt are among the top arms importers, receiving advanced military equipment to bolster their defense capabilities. Persistent Arms Purchases: Middle East: Countries in the Middle East, such as the UAE and Qatar, continue to spend heavily on arms to enhance their security and influence in the region.  Biological and Chemical Weapons Biological and chemical weapons are considered significant threats due to their potential for mass destruction at relatively low costs. Here are some key points and examples: Biological Weapons Definition: Biological weapons use pathogens or toxins to cause disease and death in humans, animals, or plants. Example: The 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, where anthrax spores were mailed to media outlets and government offices, resulting in five deaths and widespread fear.  Chemical Weapons Definition: Chemical weapons use toxic chemicals to inflict harm or death. Example: The use of sarin gas in the 2013 Ghouta attack in Syria, which killed hundreds of civilians. International Law and Treaties 1925 Geneva Protocol: Banned the use of chemical weapons in warfare. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC): Signed by 190 countries, it requires the destruction of existing chemical weapon stocks. Notably, Syria, North Korea, Angola, Egypt, and Somalia have not signed or acceded to the CWC. Challenges and Violations Iran-Iraq War: Both countries used chemical weapons during their conflict in the 1980s. Iraq’s Use Against Kurds: In 1989, Iraq used chemical weapons against its Kurdish population. Weak Legal Barriers: These examples highlight the limitations of international legal frameworks in preventing the use of chemical weapons.  2. Political Power Formal Organs of Power Legislature: This body is responsible for making laws. For example, the U.S. Congress passes federal laws, including those related to taxation and regulation. Executive: This branch implements and enforces laws. For instance, the President of the United States, along with federal agencies, executes laws passed by Congress. For example, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) enforces environmental laws like the Clean Air Act, which was passed by Congress to regulate air pollution. Judiciary: This branch interprets laws and ensures they are applied fairly. The U.S. Supreme Court, for example, can rule on the constitutionality of laws. For example, in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional, thus ensuring the fair application of the law. Informal Organs of Power Political Parties: These organizations influence government policies and decisions. For example; The Indian Parliament’s legislative agenda included the passage of the GST Bill, which aimed to simplify the tax structure by implementing a single tax on goods and services across the country. Pressure Groups: These groups advocate for specific interests. The National Rifle Association (NRA) in the U.S. lobbies for gun rights, which guarantees the right to keep and bear arms. Public Opinion: This can sway political decisions. For example, Growing awareness of climate change and its impacts has led to increased public concern over environmental issues. Public support for environmental protection has influenced governments worldwide to adopt policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions and promoting renewable energy.  3. Economic Power Economic power stems from the control of material resources, particularly the means of production and distribution. This power can significantly influence political decisions. Examples: Big Landlords: In many countries, large landowners can influence agricultural policies. For example, in Pakistan, influential landlords often have significant political clout. Industrialists and Businessmen: They can shape economic policies. In India, industrialists like the Tata Group have considerable influence over economic development priorities. Pressure Groups: Economic powerhouses form strong pressure groups. The CII is a prominent business association in India that represents the interests of Indian industries and businesses. The CII engages in lobbying, policy advocacy, and providing a platform for dialogue between the government and industry leaders. It organizes conferences, seminars, and workshops to discuss and influence economic policies.  4. Ideological Power Ideological power provides a stable base for political power by promoting a set of beliefs that justify the existing social order. Examples: Ruling Class Ideologies: In many societies, the ruling class promotes ideologies that support their governance. For example, the Communist Party in China promotes socialism with Chinese characteristics to maintain its rule. Legitimacy: Ideologies provide legitimacy to the ruling class. For instance, the concept of the “American Dream” supports the U.S. capitalist system and legitimizes the political and economic order. Public Approval: When people believe in the ideology, they are less likely to oppose the ruling class. For example, during the Cold War, the U.S. promoted democracy and capitalism as superior to communism, gaining public support for its policies.