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Introduction to Science, Technology and Society 2. Equipment technology-design and fabrication of tools, instruments, devices and machines. SCIENCE...

Introduction to Science, Technology and Society 2. Equipment technology-design and fabrication of tools, instruments, devices and machines. SCIENCE 3. Energy technology-deals with the distribution of various forms of energy such as solar panels, wind turbines and a kind of human cultural activity which is practiced by people hydrothermal. known as scientist and formerly called natural philosophers 4. Information technology-based on machines that collect, and savants. store, process, retrieve, transmit and utilize data or system of knowledge that is concerned with the natural world. information. TECHNOLOGY 5. Life technology-these are devices, medicines, procedures and systems designed to preserve, repair, maintain, reproduce Practical application of knowledge and improve living systems. A kind of human cultural activity or endeavor which is 6. Management technology-Planning, organization, practiced by people called technologist which include coordination and control of social activities. engineers, craftsmen and machinists. A complex system of knowledge, skills, people, methods, Branches of Science tools, organization, facilities, materials, physical resources 1. Geology devoted and directed to the research, development, production 2. Chemistry as well operation of a new or improved product, process or 3. Physics services in a reproducible way. 4. Biology SOCIETY 5. Astronomy an organized group of people associated as members of a Classification of technology based on a country’s level of community. technological sophistication. Types of Research 1. First Wave Technology-Agricultural Age-comprising the pre-industrial technologies which are labor-intensive, small- 1. Fundamental/Basic Research-gaining new knowledge scale, decentralized and based on empirical rather than 2. Applied-practical application scientific knowledge. 3. Mission-Oriented-accomplishing a particular mission or 2. Second Wave technology-comprising the industrial technological objective technologies which were developed since the time of industrial revolution until the end of World War II. These are usually capital-intensive technologies and are essentially based on the classical principles of classical physics, chemistry and biology. Types of Technology 3. Third-Wave technology-comprising the post-industrial or the 1. Material technology-extraction, fabrication, processing, high technologies which are called science-intensive since combination and synthesis of materials they are based on the modern scientific knowledge of the  structures, properties and interaction of molecules, atoms and the City of Uruk- a great wonder not only because it is nuclei. considered to be the first true city in the world Divided the circle into 360 degrees. Evolution of Societies Developed advances mathematical functions to permit 1. Hunter and Gatherer Societies-the most primitive of all accurately plot and forecast. Zodiacal map of Sumer was used for practical mathematical societies. 2. Shifting and Farming-e.g. slash and burn farming and observational purposes. 3. Agricultural and Mining Societies-both depend on the Code of Ur-NAmmu- the oldest surviving law in the world. It natural resources of the world to sustain the needs of people is the earliest existing legal text Fabrication of copper but both entail the risk of environmental damage. 4. Manufacturing and Processing Societies-the use of coal marked the start of industrialization. 2. Babylonian Civilization 5. Synthesizing and Recycling Societies-production of Babylonia- ancient region bordering the Tigris and Euphrates rivers synthetic food and other resources and recycling of (Southern Iraq) nonrenewable resources. Nebuchadnezzar ordered the construction of the famous “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” and the Isthar Gate. Ancient Times They adopted the Sumerian sexagesimal system of counting in units, Ziggurat and cuneiform. 1. Sumerian Civilization Their measurements made use of fractions, squares and Significant Contributions square roots. book-keeping, a simple but adequate system of double-entry Cuneiform- a set of word pictures depicted in symbols made accounting. of triangular marks. Zodiac signs, concept of horoscope Sexagesimal - using the number 60 as base, system of Prediction of solar and lunar eclipses. counting and a form of place notation. Jewelry making originated from the Babylonians Ziggurats- Mountain of god, served as the sacred place of Code of Hammurabi their chief god The Babylonian Map of the World- first map Potter’s wheel. Astrology, the science of studying the position of celestial Wheeled vehicle made of solid wooden wheels on axles bodies. now regarded as the greatest mechanical invention of all time. 3. Egyptian Civilization materia medica -made up of assorted botanical, zoological and mineralogical ingredients. Egypt- located in the Northeastern part of the African continent, seed plow a desert country thriving on an agricultural economy. sail boat intricate system of canals, dikes and reservoir.  The Egyptian writing was in the form of pictorial symbols They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships known as hieroglyphics, representing individual objects or In Hellenistic Egypt, lighthouse technology was developed, the actions. most famous example being the Lighthouse of Alexandria- a They wrote with ink and brushes on paper made of papyrus port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in reeds. Egypt or imported in Egypt. Ancient Egyptians studies the heavens to record time, Library of Alexandria calculate distances/directions, forecast the seasons and Obelisks and pillars predict annual flooding of the Nile river. The earliest Egyptian calendar was based on their 4. Greek Civilization observations of the regular appearance and disappearance of Sirius the brightest star in their horizon which coincide with Greece- is an archipelago in the Southeastern part of Europe.-Known the annual rise and fall of the Nile river. as the birthplace of western philosophy. Another calendar was based on the phases of the moon, -Some of the major achievements of the Greeks include in-depth consisting of 29 and ½ days. works on philosophy and mathematics. The first 365-day calendar was possibly devised by IMHOTEP. They calculated the time by means of waterclock- a -Their wise men were the first to systematically separate scientific conical earthen vessel with hours equally marked off on the ideas from superstition and stressed the logical development of inside and spout at the bottom. general principles or theories about natural phenomena. Nobles, men and women wore wigs, they used a variety of preparations for the hair such as henna. -Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age They designed They used tweezers and razors to remove unwanted body various mathematical models and mechanical systems to explain hair. the planetary motions and mechanical systems to explain the Both sexes wore jewelries, sandals, perfume and planetary positions and movements on geometrical determinations cosmetics-eye make-up and Kohl around the eyes to and logical deductions. prevent or even cure eye diseases. Ancient Greeks invented the alarm clock- used large They built pyramids such as Pyramid of Sakkara as Zoser’s complicated mechanisms to time the alarm. They made use of tomb and memorial and Pyramid of Khufu or Cheofs and Great water ( or sometimes small stones or sand). That dropped into sphinx- a stone statue with a king;s head and a lion’s boy to drums which sounded the alarm. guard the pharaoh’s tomb.. Watermills were also considered as one of the most The ancient Egyptians knowledge of human anatomy, important contributions of the Greek civilization to the world. physiology and medical plants enabled them to master the They were commonly used in agricultural processes like art and science of embalming the dead. milling of grains which was a necessary form of food From the Hyksos, they learned military technology and processing. Greek Philosophers system- horse driven light war chariots manned by warriors Galen made the first steps for the advancement of the science armed with bows, bronze swords and lances. of anatomy. The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines such as ramp and lever, to aid construction processes.  Hippocrates- “Father of Greek Medicine” First to regard The ancient Roman Empire was able to produce the first medicine as a science apart from religion. He taught that books or codex. diseases have natural causes and that somehow the They introduced the Roman numeral. human body is capable of healing or repairing itself. They constructed the Pantheon as one of the world’s greatest According to Empedocles nature was a mixture of four domed buildings and Colosseum, Rome’s stage for individual elements: earth, fire, air and water. gladiatorial contest which held 50,000 spectators. Thales of Miletus- Father of Philosophy, taught that nature Chariot races and gladiatorial fights were held at Rome’s was composed of or convertible into water. principal stadium, the Circus Maximus, which accommodated Anaxagoras- argued that matter was composed of some 300,000 people. countless tiny particles, each made of dominant substances Roman government were able to implement major projects such as water mixed with other random substances. such as large churches (cathedrals and basilicas), aqueducts, Aristotle- proved the importance of critical observation amphitheaters and even residential houses. and systematic means to identify and classify organisms. Vitruvius first described the odometer as being used for Thales, Phythagoras, Euclid- perfected geometry, as a measuring distance around 27BC, but evidence points single logical system. towards Archimedes of Syracuse as its inventor. Archimedes- performed experiments which led him to Anaximander was one of the first pioneer cartographers to discover the laws of lever and the pulley. – invented the create a map of the world. science of hydrostatics- measurement and use of water- Olympics were dedicated to the Olympian Gods. power.- made planetarium powered by water to demonstrate the movements of the sun and planets around the stationary 6. Arabic/Islamic Civilization earth.- discovered the concept of gravity Ptolemy- wrote the Almagest, wherein he presented his Arabia- is a rocky peninsula in Southwestern Asia. ideas and summarized those of the earlier Greek -The most influential Muslim intellectual contribution to the modern astronomers about the universe.-postulated the geocentric world was their synthesis of the scientific and technological theory of the universe. knowledge they learned from and transmitted to the various 5. Roman Civilization cultures they encountered. -The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and They introduced the Arabic system of numbers The Arabs social entity in the west interest in the pseudoscience of alchemy encouraged them to mix and manipulate chemical elements and -Considered to be the cradle of politics and governance. conduct experiments to transform base metals into gold. They were the first to use glass lens for magnification One of the major contributions of the Romans is First to manufacture the black powder They produced the the newspaper- Gazettes-contained announcements of the first gun- a bamboo tube reinforced with iron that used a Roman Empire to the people, made metal or stone charge of black powder to shoot an arrow. tablets and then publicly displayed. 7. Chinese Civilization -It is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia. technology of copper coinage, the artistry of wallpaper and porcelain. -It is also known as the middle kingdom, located on the far east of Tea production was developed. Asia. People learned the technology of silk production The 8. Indus-Hindu Civilization outstanding contribution of the Shang included the India- mainly in the Northwestern regions of South Asia. creation of magnificent bronze vessels, discovery of lacquer, the development of the horse-drawn war chariots and the first Considered the most remarkable accomplishment of the known Chinese writing which was discovered incised on flat Indus civilization was the construction layout of its cities shoulder bones of cattle or on tortoises shells called “oracle which featured water wells (that piped water supply) bone”. bathrooms and wastepipe or drains in nearly every house. Chopsticks came into use. They excelled particularly in medicine and mathematics. They invented the escapement, the basic device used to Traditional Indian medication had a very extensive regulate clocks. pharmacopoeia and varieties of herbal remedies and drugs. They constructed the Great Wall of China and the great palace Indian surgeons successfully performed various operations of the first emperor. like repair of broken limbs, complicated bone setting, The Chinese had one of the most advanced systems of amputation, plastic surgery and Caesarian section. pharmacology- discovery of healing drugs and herbs. They introduced the negative and positive quantities, They also practice apothecaries and acupuncture- was used to square and cube roots, quadratic equations, mathematical treat illnesses or pain by pricking the patient’s body with implications of zero and infinity and value of pi up to nine needles at points believed to be connected with the decimal places. visceral organs causing the pain. They also developed the steps in sine functions, spherical They invented the “earthquake weathercock” to detect geometry and calculus earthquake occurrence Iron pillar of Delhi-the world’s first iron pillar. The use of toilet paper was also traced in China back to the Stupa was used as commemorative monument associated sixth century. with storing sacred relics. Development of calligraphy, water color, painting and block Great technology was needed in the fields of weaponry, printing were invented. navigation, mass food and farm production, and health. The first movable type printer made form pottery was developed by Pi Sheng. 9. Persian Civilization Chinese had an outstanding contributions such as the invention of gunpowder, a naturally magnetic iron ore used to Introduction of a uniform system of gold and silver coinage. magnetize a floating needle (prototype of the magnetic needle The first regular postal system in the world in compass) to indicate location, the use of coal as fuel, water Taxation system, an important component of the Achaemenid wheel, the wheelbarrow, and the flexible bamboo pole that state administration. speedily enchanted the transport of heavy loads, the  Qanat is a gently sloping underground channel that carries 3.Water mill – it was an integral part of the feudal economy. By using water from an aquifer or water well to houses and fields. It is suitable mechanism, its rotary motion could be converted to reciprocal used for drinking water and irrigation of crops. motion making it a source of general power. Sulfuric acid was first discovered by Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Jakarta al-Razi. 4.Windmill was used primarily for blowing bellows, filling cloth, forging iron, sawing, weaving and threshing. Medieval Times 5.Mechanical clock- tells time using gears driven by weights that pull The period from 450A.D to 1450 A.D the gears at the right pace. is generally known as the period of history between Ancient 6.Horse Harness and Horse shoe allowed the horse to increase its” Times and Modern Times. attractive” effort five times and for protection. This innovation came This is usually divided into the so called Dark Ages and the from the 7th century A.D china reaching Europe early in the eleventh High Middle Ages. century, resulting in the horse taking the place of oxen at the plough. The Age of Exploration. In addition, the introduction of the horses’ modes put the horse on the The start of the middle ages was marked by massive invasions road for pack and wagon. and migrations. The Islamic world had become a civilization of colossal 7.Distillation and Alcohol- the first preparation of strong spirits of expansive and had imposed a unity of religion and culture wine was made in Europe in the 12th century. As the distillation of on much of southwest Asia and North Africa. perfumes and oil was already known, alcohol was probably produced by accident in the course of some medical preparation. Technological advances during the Middle Ages include the following: 8.Universities and Scholastics- By the twelfth century, these schools swelled to become universities with set of courses 1. Printing press- After the Chinese, Johann Gutenberg and teaching the seven liberal arts, philosophy and theology. The first developed a more reliable and way of printing using a cast type. and most famous of these was the University of Paris in 1160. In the Gutenberg utilized wooden machines that extracted juices from fruits, eleventh century A.D, medical school had been existence in Salermo. attached to them a metal impression of the letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece of paper, which then made an extract 9. Church, medieval towns, Iron-chain suspension bridges, impression on paper. segmental arch structures were built. 2.Gunpowder and Canon- appeared around the 9th century A.D, 10.Canon of Medicine- authored by Avicenna, an Arab physician. It followed by vigorous development of explosive weapons from 1040 contained a good summary of the period’s medical knowledge and A.D about three centuries before it appeared in Europe. From fire- accurate descriptions of meningitis, tetanus and other diseases. lance using a rocket combination and bamboo tube as close combat weapon, all barrier guns and cannon were constructed at the 11. War Weapons such as cross bows, long bows was beginning of the 12th century A.D. developed so that they could attack the enemies at long ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of wall and fortresses. Soldiers wear body armors and chainmail to protect Paracelsus- an alchemist and physician of the Renaissance. themselves. Medieval alchemists worked with two main elements: Sulphur and mercury. 12. Lenses with spectacles- The discovery of lenses resulted in The astronomy was based on geocentric model (earth- the invention of spectacles in Italy around 1350 A.D. This gave centered) described by Claudius Ptolemy. impetus to the study of light or optics. Grosseteste, Dietrich and Nicolas Copernicus published “On the Revolutions of the Roger Bacon explained how a lens could focus light rays and Heavenly Spheres”. magnify things. The demand for spectacles gave rise to lens Andreas Vesalius described the anatomy of the brain’s grinding/trading and spectacle-makers. function. He wrote the book “On the Fabric of the Human 13. The sternpost rudder apparently came also from China. This led Body”. to the development of the sail that could be adjusted such that ship Modern Times voyages could be made in rougher weather. The booming world population during the nineteenth century onwards 14. Mariner’s Magnetic Compass- the ability of a natural magnet to demanded that more goods be produced at a faster rate. People show direction was known o the Chinese several centuries ago or needed efficient means of transportation to trade more goods and about sixth century A.D before it passed to the West or Europe. cover a larger distance. Machines that required animals to operate 15. Flying Buttress- one of the architectural innovations must thus be upgraded. Faster and easier means to communicate associated with Gothic churches. This allowed buildings to have and compute should be developed to established connections between and among nations. All these needs resulted in the much higher ceilings and larger windows. development of industries. However, due to massive industrialization, 16. Library of Malatesta Novello in Cesena- considered to be first the modern times again faced more complicated problems. Food ever public library in the world. processing and medicine posed some of the bigger challenges since health was of great concern. 17. Coffee House became popular in Arabic and Ottoman lands. 1.Pasteurization- invented by Louis Pasteur, a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist, the process of heating dairy products to kill the harmful bacteria that allow them to spoil faster. 2. Petroleum Refinery- is widely used in powering automobiles, Renaissance ( 14th century -16th century) factories, and power plants. Kerosene was referred to as the The period of rebirth “illuminating oil” because it was used at first to provide lighting homes. Beginning of the cultural movement Rediscovery of ancient It was invented by Samuel M. Kier. texts was accelerated after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. 3. Telephone- invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a way to easily Technology for printing books was regarded as the most maintain connection and communication with each other in real time. important invention that facilitated dissemination of knowledge and new ideas. 4. Calculator- a faster way to compute more complicated equations. 5. Electricity- the heart of many modern technologies, is the set of physical phenomena associated with presence and motion of electric 13. Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drive- also known as thumb charge. drive pen, pen drive, gig stick, flash stick, jump drive, disk key, disk on key- is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an 6. Electric power- where electric current is used to energize integrated USB interface. equipment. 14. Cellphone or mobile phone- a device that has at least the same 7. Electronics- which deals with electrical circuits that involve active functions of a standard wired telephone but is smaller and more electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and mobile. integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. 15. Internet- is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the internet protocol suite ( TCP/IP) to link devices 8. Smartwatches- a variation of regular watches but coming with a worldwide. It carries a vast range of information resources and whole bunch of features as your smartphone. services such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and 9. Robotics- is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science applications of the World Wide Web (WWW). Electronic mail, that includes mechanical engineering, electronics engineering, telephony and file sharing. computer science and others. It deals with the design, construction, 16. Television- is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting operation and use of robots, as well as computer systems for their moving images in monochrome (black and white) or in color, and in control, sensory feedback and information processing. two or three dimensions and sound. It is a mass medium for 10. Incandescent light bulb- is an electric light with a wire filament advertising, entertainment and news. heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light 17. Veterinary medicine was for the first time, truly separated from (incandescence). It is widely used in household and commercial human medicine in 1761, when French Veterinarian Claude Bourgelat lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps and founded the world’s first veterinary school in Lyon, France flashlights and for decorative and advertising lighting. 18. Penicillin- discovered by Alexander Fleming in September 1928, 11. Airplane- is a powered fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled by marks the start of modern antibiotics. thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as 19. Genomics- is an interdisciplinary field of science focusing on the “the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. It is structure, function, evolution, mapping and editing of genomes- is an used to transport parcels as well as people to other side of the world organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. in less than a day or weeks. 20. Biotechnology- is the broad area of science involving living 12. Computer- is a device that can be instructed to carry out systems and organisms to develop or make products, or any sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via technological application that uses biological systems, living computer programming. It is also used as control systems for a wide organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products for variety of industrial and consumer devices. Charles Babbage, an specific use. English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. 21. Automobile ( car)- is a wheeled motor vehicle used for 31. Wi-Fi- is a technology for radio wireless local area networking of transportation devices. 22. Nuclear weapon- is an explosive device that derives its 32. Printer- is a peripheral device which makes a persistent human- destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or from a readable representation of graphics or text on paper. combination of fission and fusion reactions. 33. Camera- is an optical instrument for recording or capturing 23. Nuclear power- is the use of nuclear reactions that release images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then used or both. in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. 34. Closed-circuit television (CCTV)- also known as video 24. Satellites- is an artificial object which has been intentionally surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a placed into orbit. They are used for many purposes such as military specific place, on a limited set of monitors. and civilian Earth observation, telecommunication, navigation, weather forecast and space telescopes. 35. Submarine- is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It is used in military, marine science, search-and-rescue 25. Vaccine- is a biological preparation that provides active acquired and tourism. immunity to a particular disease. 36. Stethoscope- is an acoustic medical device for auscultation, or 26. telegraphy-is the long distance transmission of textual or listening to the internal sounds of an animal or human body. symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. 37. Laptop or notebook computer- is a small, portable personal computer with a “clamshell”form factor having typically a thin LCD or 27. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanner- is a medical LED computer screen mounted on the inside of the upper lid of the imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy “clamshell”and an alphanumeric keyboard on the inside of the lower and the physiological processes of the body in both health and lid. disease. 38. Credit card- is a payment card issued to users to enable the 28. Computed tomography (CT) scan- makes use of computer- cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services. processes combinations of many X-ray measurements taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of specific areas of 39. Steam engine- is a heat engine that performs mechanical work scanned object, allowing the user to see the object without cutting. using steam as its working fluid. 29. Liquid-crystal display (LCD projector)- is a type of video 40. Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation projector for displaying video, images or computer data on a screen or (Laser)- is a device that emits light through a process of optical other flat surface. amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. 30. Bluetooth- is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices and building personal area networks.  The Scientific Revolution Industrial revolution- refers to complex technological innovations from 1750 to 1895 characterized by the It has been established that most, if not all, of the discoveries substitutions of machines for human skill and machine power and inventions in science and technology during each time for that of human and animal bringing a shift from handicraft to period were due to human needs and wants. manufacture and marking the birth of modern economy. Brilliant minds responded to the call of the times and created things that could make life easier for the people. Causes or Genesis of the Scientific Revolution There have also been instances when advancements in science and technology changed people’s perceptions and The remarkable achievements of specific individuals such as beliefs. Nicolas Copernicus, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Andreas Vesalius, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Robert Hooke and Much of these events happened in a period now known as the Isaac Newton. Intellectual Revolution. The philosophy of new science, a new way of doing science Scientific Revolution is used to refer to the great intellectual using what is known as the scientific method advocated by achievements of science from sixteenth to seventeenth Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes among others. century marking a radical change in the assumptions attitudes and methods in scientific inquiry. The desire to break away from the ideas of the feudal middle ages and the Aristotelian view. Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying The establishments of the universities from the 12th century moments to some scientific individuals that led to their painful which were later engaged in the critical analysis of the death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried Aristotelean views. to preserve their faith, religion and theological views. The Renaissance hopeful period of concerned with the present The Scientific Revolution develops as an offshoot of the life as well as the empirical and mundane interest in the Renaissance. The same questioning spirit that fueled the natural world and humanity. Renaissance led scientists to question traditional beliefs and Important inventions such as mechanical clock, lenses, the Church about the workings of the universe. It was a new telescope, microscope etc. way of thinking about the natural world. The combinations and cooperation’s of the skills of the Before 1500, the Bible and Aristotle were the only authorities craftsmen and the intellectual, computational and logical accepted as truth method of the scholars. A geocentric model of the universe, in which the Earth is at the Printing press spread new ideas center was supported during the Middle Ages Age of Exploration fueled a great deal of scientific research Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and because of technology needed for navigation believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek Translation of the works of Muslim scholars opened the astronomer. Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of minds of European thinkers to new scientific knowledge the universe. People felt this was common sense, and the Nicolaus Copernicus geocentric theory was supported by the Church. It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to change the way they viewed the physical world.  Copernicus was a Polish mathematician and astronomer who Tycho Brahe studied in Italy. In 1543 Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium In the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). provided evidence that supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions: The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered. The Earth is merely one of Brahe set up an astronomical observatory. several planets revolving around the sun. Every night for years he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the stars and Copernicus’ model of the solar system: planets. 1. Sun Johannes Kepler 2. Moon 3. Mercury After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer and 4. Venus mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to 5. Earth calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun. 6. Mars Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric 7. Jupiter theory. 8. Saturn His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and Copernicus believed. Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed by man-made Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical satellites today. formulas. The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start of modern science and astronomy. Galileo Galilei Up to the time of Copernicus, people thought that there was a sort of crystal sphere that kept the planets, moon, and stars in Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built upon the orbit around the Earth. It was Copernicus that proposed the scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and Kepler. idea that the Earth revolved around the sun, and not vice Galileo assembled the first telescope which allowed him to see versa... The sun was the center of the Universe, not the Earth. mountains on the moon and fiery spots on the sun. Most scholars rejected Copernicus’s theory. He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter – exactly Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the sun. Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same speed rotate on its axis. regardless of weight. Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning The Church punished him for his belief in this idea. He was about the planets was wrong, then the whole system of human questioned by the Inquisition and forced to confess that his knowledge could be wrong. ideas were wrong.  The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that the Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals and Earth was fixed and unmoving. plants varied noticeably among the different Galapagos When threatened with death before the Inquisition in 1633, Islands. Among the tortoises, the shape of the shell Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew the Earth corresponds to different habitats. moved. Darwin thought about the patterns he’d seen on his voyage Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not allowed to He realized that there were many similarities between the publish his ideas. animals he’d seen. There was evidence that suggested that species were not Sir Isaac Newton fixed and that they could change by some natural process. Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the Artificial Selection work of Copernicus and Galileo. Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific To find an explanation for change in nature, Darwin studied Revolution. the changes produced by plant and animal breeders He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that Some plants bear larger or smaller fruits than others kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused Some cows give more or less milk than others in their herd objects to fall towards the earth. This told Darwin that variation could be passed from parents to Newton published his scientific ideas in his book Mathematical offspring and used to improve crops and livestock Principles of Natural Philosophy. In artificial selection, nature provides the variations, and He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the laws humans select the ones they find useful of motion:1. A body at rest stays at rest2. Acceleration is Darwin knew that variation occurs in wild species as well as caused by force3. For every action there is an equal domesticated species opposite reaction He realized that that natural variation provided the raw He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis. material for evolution Darwin wanted to gather as much evidence as he could to Charles Darwin support his ideas before he made them public Studied medicine at Edinburgh, theology at Cambridge In 1858, Darwin read an essay by Alfred Wallace whose Interest in natural history thoughts about evolution were almost identical to his Taught by a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of the In order to not get “scooped”, Darwin decided to present his South American Rainforest work at a scientific meeting in 1858 along with some of Darwin developed the biological theory of evolution that Wallace’s essay explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of The next year, Darwin published his complete work on time through descent from common ancestors evolution: On the Origin of Species In 1831, he began a 5 year voyage on the HMS Beagle that Struggle for Existence would change his life. From Malthus’ theory of supply and demand, Darwin reasoned that if more individuals are produced than can survive, they will  have to compete for food, living space and other necessities of Low Fitness: Few offspring/extinction life Darwin thought that this seemed very similar to artificial Darwin described this as the struggle for existence selection Variation and Adaptation He referred to “survival of the fittest” as Natural Selection Individuals have natural variations among their inheritable Survival means more than just staying alive. It means traits reproducing and passing adaptations on to the next generation Some variations are better suited to life in their environment Natural Selection: Nature chooses than others Artificial selection: Man chooses Fast predators capture prey more efficiently Favorable characteristics are inherited over several Prey that are faster, better camouflaged or better protected generations. avoid being caught. Natural Selection is the process by which organisms with variations most suited to their local environment survive and Variation and Adaptation leave more offspring Any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms ability Natural Selection occurs in any situation in which more to survive and reproduce in its environment is called an individuals are born than can survive adaptation Over time, natural selection results in changes in the inherited Examples of Adaptations: characteristics of a population. Tiger’s claws These changes increase a species’ fitness in its environment. Camouflage colors A single “tree of life” links all living things Plant structures This is known as the principle of common descent. Avoidance behaviors Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on Earth for millions of years. Today, fields like genetics and molecular biology support Darwin’s basic ideas about evolution Survival of the Fittest DARWIN'S FOUR POSTULATES Darwin felt that there must be a connection between an animal’s environment and how it survives individuals within species vary Ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment is some of these variations are passed on to offspring called FITNESS individuals vary in their ability to survive and reproduce Fitness depends upon how well an organism is suited for its Individuals with the most favorable adaptations are more likely environment to survive and reproduce. Fitness is a result of ADAPTATION Natural selection produces organisms with different structures Good adaptations allow organisms to survive and are passed than their ancestor, different niches, and new habitats. on to their offspring. Each living species has descended, with changes, over time. Good fitness: Reproduce Lamarck’s Evolutionary Hypotheses  Proposed that the use or disuse of organs caused organisms An Austrian Neurologist who became fascinated with studying to gain or lose traits over time. hysteria. These new characteristics could be passed on to the next Father of psychoanalysis. generation. Psychology was considered more of an art rather than a Suggest that species are not fixed science. Explain that evolution uses natural processes Psychoanalysis- is the study that explains human behavior. Recognize that there is a link between an organism’s environment and its body structures Levels of Consciousness: Iceberg theory Lamarck’s work paved the way for later biologists, including 1. Conscious mind – like the top of the iceberg, only a small Darwin. portion of our mind is accessible to us. 2. Preconscious mind – material that is unconscious, but Thomas Malthus can be easily brought into awareness. Moves back & forth In 1798, Thomas Malthus noticed that people were being born easily between conscious & unconscious. faster than people were dying 3. Unconscious mind – is completely outside of our He reasoned that if the human population grew unchecked, awareness (could produce anxiety if made conscious). there would not be enough living space and food for everyone Structures of Personality The forces that work against human population growth are war, famine and disease 1. Id – “pleasure principle” unconscious impulses that want to He reasoned that what Malthus proposed for human be gratified, without regard to potential punishment. populations also applied to all living things. Original Core of an Individual personality He observed that most organisms produce many more Biological Driven offspring than survive. Primarily Unconscious He wondered which individuals would survive... and why 2. Ego “reality principle” – tries to satisfy id impulses while If all the offspring that were produced did survive, they would minimizing punishment & guilt. overrun the world. Self- Identity which arises out of ID It controls voluntary motion and self- reservation ORGANIC EVOLUTION behavior the slow and gradual process by which living organisms have 3. Superego – the “moral principle” of our personality which changed from the simplest unicellular form to the most tells us right from wrong our conscience. complex multi-cellular forms that are existing today. Developing out of the Ego Serves as conscience Sigmund Freud  Science, Technology and Nation Building Bureau of Government Laboratories allocated for the study of tropical diseases and laboratory projects. Then, it was replaced by the Bureau Pre-Colonial Period of Science, the primary research center of the Philippines. Before the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the natives of the Post-Colonial Period archipelago already had practices linked to science and technology. Filipinos were engaged in different kinds of activities like farming, Marcos Era and Martial Law weaving, shipbuilding and mining. The Banaue Rice Terraces are among the cultured products of engineering that were built with minimal President Ferdinand Marcos strengthened the development of equipment, largely by hand. These are fed by an ancient irrigation science and technology in the Philippines. Many agencies, institutions system from the rainforests above terraces. They already had an and projects were established including National Grains Authority for alphabet called Alibaba and the emergence of writing system called the development of rice and corn industry, Philippine Council for baybayin, primarily used by certain inhabitants of Luzon and Visayas. Agricultural Research for the development of agriculture, fisheries and The Laguna Copperplate Inscription which is a legal document forestry. Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical inscribed on a copper plate, is said to be the earliest known calendar- Services Administration (PAGASA) to ensure the safety of the people. dated document found in the Philippines. Just like other civilizations, Philippine National Oil Company to promote industrial and economic astronomy is shown by fixing precise day within the month in relation to development, National Academy of Science and Technology which is the phases of the moon. They had also a standard system of weights composed of scientists with innovative achievement in the basic and and measures for shipbuilding. The Philippine shamans or babaylans applied sciences, Philippine Council for Agricultural Research and were the first healers within the tribal communities and the use of resources, Plant breeding Institute, International Rice Research medicinal or herbal plants was the common way of treating ailments. Institute, Bureau of Plant Industry and Bureau of Forest Products. Furthermore, President Marcos established the Philippine Science Colonial Period High School in Mindanao and Visayas to encourage careers in science and technology. When the Spaniards colonized the Philippines, they introduced formal education and founded scientific institution. The Spaniards Corazon Aquino Presidency provided the Philippines with parish schools in which religion, arithmetic, writing, reading and music were taught. In fact, University of Department of Science and Technology formerly known as Santo Tomas was started by the Spanish Archbishop of Manila as a National Science and technology Authority was given a representation seminary. The Spanish also contributed to the field of engineering by in the cabinet. President Aquino encouraged scientists to bring the constructing roads, churches, bridges, walls, forts and other Philippines to its former position as second to only Japan in the field of infrastructures. In Medicine, both the Spanish government and science and technology. Religious Franciscan and Dominican missionaries established a The Science and Technology Master Plan was formulated which aimed number of hospitals in the Philippines and also acted as hospital at the modernization of the production sector, upgrading research founders and the surveyors of herbal medicines. activities and development of infrastructure for science and The American period provided the Philippines with an extensive technological purposes. public education system. The Philippine Commission established the Fidel Ramos Presidency  During his term, there was a significant increase in personnel pioneered giant clam breeding and other protective areas for specializing in the science and technology field. Health care services coastal communities of the Philippines. were promoted through local programs such as “Doctors to the Barrio 3. Gavino C. Trono – “The father of Kappaphycus farming”, a Filipino Program”. Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel was biologist who focus on marine phycology particularly seaweed established. He believes that science and technology was one of the biodiversity. means wherein the Philippines could attain the status of new 4. Angel Alcala – a Filipino biologist who promote biodiversity in the industrialized country. aquatic ecosystems of the Philippines. 5. Fe Del Mundo – Filipina pediatrician, the founder of the first pediatric hospital in the Philippines. 6. Eduardo Quisumbing – a Filipino biologist, a leading authority of plants in the Philippines. He is the author of taxonomic and morphological papers, many of which deal with orchids including Medicinal Plants in the Philippines. Joseph Estrada Presidency 7. Emil Q Javier – Filipino plant geneticist and agronomist who contributed in Agriculture. President Estrada signed the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, 8. Germiniano T. de Ocampo – Filipino ophthalmologist known to designed to protect and preserve the environment and Electronic some as the Father of Modern Philippine ophthalmology. He was Commerce Act of 2000 which outlaw’s computer hacking. the founder of the Philippine Eye Bank. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Presidency Several laws and projects that concerns both the environment and science to push technology as a tool to increase the country’s economic level. The term “Filipin novation” was the term used in helping the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia. Philippine Science High School focuses in science, technology and mathematics in their curriculum. President Arroyo passed the Biofuels act” that promotes the development and usage of biofuels throughout the country Arroyo’s administration improves the Agriculture and Fisheries sector through Mechanization. National Scientist 1. Ramon C. Barba – a Filipino inventor and horticulturist, best known for inventing a way to induce more flowers in mango trees using ethrel and potassium nitrate. 2. Edgardo Gomez – a Filipino biologist who led the world’s first national-scale assessment of damage to coral reefs. He also