Sowah Elvis-Soc 154 unit 1.pdf

Department of Sociology and Social Work Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana LECTURE 1 SOCIAL CONTROL ...

Department of Sociology and Social Work Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana LECTURE 1 SOCIAL CONTROL  INTRODUCTION Social life according to Nobbes et al. (1980) is carried on according to rules. No society is lawless. Societies have evolved ways and means of enforcing law and order. There are rules which control how we behave in society in order not to break down social order. 2 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CONTROL Social control according to Nukunya (2003:79) is defined as ’’the system of maintaining law and order in society and ensuring that members of the society conform to the accepted ways of behavior’’. This is achieved through socialization (where members of the society imbibe values and norms, right and wrong) Persuasion (where people are prevailed on or talked into or convinced to conform) and Sanctions(where approved actions or behaviors are rewarded and disapproved one punished). 3 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL - (1) SOCIALIZATION Little of man’s behavior is instinctive. Rather man’s behavior is learned. The kind of skills and knowledge that man requires to survive and to develop are acquired both through interaction and communication with other men in society and by transmission of culture, material and immaterial from the previous to the present generation. Man is man because he shares with others a common culture, culture which includes not only its living members but also members of past generations and those unborn. 4 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SOCIALIZATION CONT’D Socialization is variously defined. According to Worsely (1957), it is the transmission of culture, the process whereby man learns the rules and practices of social groups. To Roucek (1947), socialization refers to the training process by which an individual, inexperienced in a given culture, learns about an aspect of his/her behavior. Chinoy (1967) on the other hand sees it as a “process which transforms the raw human material into a social being’’(pp. 75b). 5 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SOCIALISATION CONT’D In other words it is the process by which an individual learns his/her culture and without which he/she cannot adapt to and survive in his/her society. Socialization is an aspect of all activity within all human societies. Just as we learn a game by playing it, so we learn life by engaging in it. We are socialized in the course of the activities themselves. 6 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  WHY SOCIALIZATION? Often times it has been questioned why socialize at all? Are we not born human and social? Kingsley Davies provides the answer to these questions in ’Human Society’ pp. 204-208. He answers the questions in the cases of two isolates: ANNA- was an illegitimate child who was kept in isolation. She received just minimum care to keep her barely alive, her clothes were dirty and filthy and seldom moved from one position to another. Also she had no instructions and friendly attention. When found, she could not talk, walk or do anything that showed intelligence. 7 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  WHY SOCIALIZATION CONT’D But later, she could follow direction, identify few colors and could repeat few phrases among others. ISABELLE-She too was an illegitimate child and was kept in isolation with her deaf mute mother in a dark room. Isabelle has no chance to develop speech. She communicated with her mother by means of gestures. Her behavior towards strangers especially men was almost like that of a wild animal-manifesting much fear and hostility. Instead of speech, she made only strange croaking sound. 8 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  WHY SOCIALIZATION CONT’D When found, in a little over 7 months, she had gained all that a child of her age could acquire, that is the sense of speech, touch and feel among others. The sociological lessons from the above cases are clear. A baby is endowed with certain innate characteristics like sense of taste, smell , feel, sight and without human socialization, however all these remain latent properties. Only when socialization takes place can one be called human being. If we are not socialized, we will be less than human, there will be chaos and non-conformity and non-persistence. 9 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE ISOLATED CASES Poor physical development, Poor social development, Poor levels of intelligence, and Inability to communicate effectively. 10 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION Socialization can be primary or secondary Primary socialization: This is probably the most important aspect of the socialization process. This occurs in infancy and childhood and is the most intense period of cultural learning. It is the time when children learn language and basic behavioral patterns which form the foundation of later learning. It takes place usually within the family. Other important agencies include the educational system, the peer group. 11 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  KINDS OF SOCIALISATION CONT’D Secondary socialization: Socialization is not confined to childhood. It is a lifelong process. Secondary socialization takes place later in childhood and into maturity. At the beginning of their working lives, the young bricklayer, teacher and accountant soon learn the rules of the game and the tricks of the trade. Should they change jobs in later life, they will join a different occupational group and may well have to learn new skills and adopt different mannerisms and styles of dress. 12 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION CONT’D In this phase other agents take over some of the responsibilities from the family. Re-socialization: This involves the learning of new patterns of behaviour which run opposite to patterns of a previous socialization. Anticipatory socialization: In this type, individuals prepare themselves for the roles they want to play in future, which they presently do not play. 13 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  GOALS OF SOCIALIZATION It inculcates basic skills. It creates an awareness of one’s social roles. It inculcates social aspiration especially the need to get ahead It enables the individual to attain his/her ideal self-to be what she/he wants to be. 14 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  Components/Elements of Social Control Cont’d – (2) Persuasion Prevailing upon or act of inducing or enticing someone to do what is right is persuasion. It is where people are prevailed on or talked to or convinced to conform. Persuasion according to Baron et al. (2007) is the efforts to change others’ attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages. It is a common feature of our everyday life and like character people are always influenced or enticed to change especially when their behaviors are not accepted in the society. 15 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  PERSUASION CONT’D Persuasion towards conformity stems from the fact that in many contexts, there are explicit or implicit rules indicating how we should behave. These rules are the social norms which people are called to behave in accordance with when breached. In the traditional societies, persuasion often takes the form of pieces of advice given by the elders and other members of the group to deviating members. 16 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL – (3) SANCTIONS “Reactions of society to behaviors that contravene accepted rules of the society are what we call sanctions’’ (Nukunya 2003:79. There is no escape from sanction. To Radcliffe Brown(1952:205) cited in Nukunya (2003:79) sanctions are ‘’a reaction on the part of a society or considerable number of its members to a mode of behavior which is thereby approved (positive sanctions) or disapproved (negative sanctions)’’ 17 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SANCTIONS CONT’D Approved or Positive sanctions are the rewards for actions which are appropriate or proper and the motive is to encourage people to behave in an acceptable way. Disapproved or negative sanctions on the other hand are the hardships or acts of depriving one of necessities or rights as a result of behavior which is not proper. Here deserved punishment for wrongdoing may follow the improper act. 18 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SANCTIONS CONT’D Sanctions may also be classified as external and internal reactions. Sanctions imposed by others as a result of actions they approve or disapprove are external while those applied or imposed by the actor himself due to approve or disapprove behavior are internal sanctions. According to Abotchie (1997:17) “the immediacy of the threat of punishment carries a greater potential for deterrence”. Same has been noted by Chinoy (1967:456b) to the extent that ‘’the threat of sanctions is not necessarily enough to prevent nonconformity, but it does contribute to the pressures that compel obedience to cultural prescriptions’’. 19 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SANCTIONS CONT’D Like external sanctions these can be both positive and negative. Further, sanctions can also be ‘’diffused’’ and ‘’organized’’. Spontaneous or impulsive expressions such as wild cheers or applause due to exemplary conduct or derisive comments, gossip or the nasty looks which emanate from any bad behavior or action is diffused sanctions. According to Nukunya (2003:80)’’ organized sanctions are those that are imposed in accordance with some recognized procedure. 20 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SANCTIONS CONT’D Organized positive sanctions are prizes, awards, or specific honours. Organized negative sanctions are the various kinds of punishment, ranging from open expressions of reprobation, songs, flogging, stoning, imprisonment and execution. Sanctions are also classified into secular and supernatural ones. Every society expects its members to follow accepted rules of behavior for there will be chaos if people are allowed to pursue deviant behavior. 21 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SANCTIONS CONT’D According to Abotchie (1997), traditional societies operate “a penal pharmacy”, for just as illnesses are treated with appropriate medicines, offences or crimes like illnesses, also must have their appropriate sanctions. Thus punitive action must fit the offence committed. In other words punishment must match/correspond closely to the proportion of the crime committed. 22 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INFORMAL MANIFESTATION OF SANCTIONS According to Chinoy (1967), in spite of the positive gains people derive from conforming to laws and conventions such as self-satisfaction, praise, prestige, or concrete benefits among others there are occasions where people go against rules and regulations. People who violate social norms and are caught are subjected to various kinds of sanctions or penalties. Sanctions differ from society to society, group to group and from organization to organization. As reiterated by Chinoy (1967:456b), ‘’each group or organization characteristically has its own sanctions, to be imposed upon its members for violation of group norms. 23 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INFORMAL MANIFESTATION OF SANCTIONS CONT’D Members of an informal friendship group may punish an offender against their standards by ridicule and scorn, or if the offense is serious, by exclusion from their activities. Different classes of people, for instance parents use various sanctions to enforce proper behavior; temporary prohibition of such customary pleasures as watching television or going to the movies, withholding the regular allowance, a spanking, or, on occasion, the temporary withdrawal of affection. 24 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INFORMAL MANIFESTATION OF SANCTIONS CONT’D Labelling, laughing at or making fun of, avoidance and other derisive comments of disapproval by community members, relatives and friends constitute sanctions because they come from those whose good opinion are highly valued. These informal sanctions in a way work best in small rural communities where social life is dominated by intense interactions and interrelationships. It must be realized that in metropolitan and cosmopolitan areas these informal sanctions are not very effective which call for more formal social control mechanism for effective conformity. 25 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INFORMAL MANIFESTATION OF SANCTIONS CONT’D In formal systems or organisations of human relations there exist well-defined sanctions for nonconformity to organizational rules and regulations. These range from suspension, dismissal or imprisonment. For instance, unethical conduct by someone in certain profession may lead to expulsion or withdrawal of professional certificate or license. These sanctions are imposed by authorized individuals or group of persons and in some cases may be subjected to legal review. 26 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INFORMAL MANIFESTATION OF SANCTIONS CONT’D Religious organizations or bodies do also impose sanctions such as excommunication, penance, the threat of external damnation. These are considered as ‘suprasocial’, since they affect both the relations between the individual and the church and also relations with some higher or supernatural power. It must be noted though that the family, organisations and chiefs of communities may impose minor physical punishments, ‘’it is only the state that possesses the legitimate right to apply physical force to maintain order and conformity. 27 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INFORMAL MANIFESTATION OF SANCTIONS CONT’D In addition, to imprisonment,forced labor, or execution, the state may, of course, apply other penalties- for example fines and the withdrawal of legal privileges. But behind these punishments there is the possibility of coercive measures. Because of this power, the state clearly constitutes one of the central institutions for enforcing adherence to many social norms’’ (Chinoy 1967:457) 28 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  IMPORTANCE OF SANCTIONS Sanctions deter misconduct and reinforce established rules. Despite the strength of preventing people from going against social norms and rules and regulations, there are always people who knowingly or carelessly violate social norms and laws for their selfish gains. ??? It is worthy to note the assertion by Chinoy(1967:457b) that ’’the possibility of execution has not stayed the hand of many murderers, and the professional criminal often assumes that he is clever enough to escape detection and capture,’’. 29 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  IMPORTANCE OF SANCTIONS CONT’D It is equally important to quote Durkheim in his Rules of Sociological Method translated by Soloway and Mueller (1938) thus ‘’the sociological importance of punishment lies in its effects upon those who impose it as well as upon those who are subject to it. The social reaction that we call ‘punishment’ is due to the intensity of the collective sentiments which the crime offers; but, from another angle, it has the useful function of maintaining these sentiments at the same degree of intensity, for they would soon diminish if offences against them were not punished.’’ www.knust.edu.gh  IMPORTANCE OF SANCTIONS CONT’D To Chinoy therefore, ’open disregard of law or convention by some individuals may provoke repressed or hidden desires among others to do likewise. Punishing the offender helps to curb these newly stimulated impulses and thus reinforces submission to social norms’’. (Chinoy 1967:458a). 31 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SOCIAL CONTROL IN SOCIETIES Various societies have different mechanisms of regulating the behaviors of the members for the people to live in harmony with one another. Some of the mechanisms are common whiles other differ. The mechanisms at play however, depend on the type of society. 32 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  CENTRALZISED POLITICAL SYSTEMS There are a number of mechanisms for maintenance of law and order. Recall that a centralized political system is headed by one person whose authority is recognized throughout the entire area. Also it is characterized by a well-defined administrative machinery and judicial system. We should also not forget the frontiers are well demarcated. Among the mechanisms in place to regulate the behavior are the following: 33 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  MECHANISMS FOR SOCIAL CONTROL JUDICIAL SYSTEM As already stated, there is judiciary machinery that deals with disputes and breaches of peace and social offences. People in dispute are summoned to appear before the chief and his elders for the settlement. Before a final decision is reached, the people involved in the case are given the chance to have their say. In some instances witnesses and cross-examinations are used to determine the case. Tradition requires that sanctions, and here we are talking of negative sanctions(punishments) must correspond to the offence committed. Serious offences will attract severe punitive actions. 34 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  JUDICIAL SYSTEM CONT’D Thus cases may attract rebuke, caution, fines, imprisonment, flogging, banishment or execution among others depending on the gravity of the offence. 35 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE INVOLVEMENT OF THE SUPERNATURAL IN THE JUDICIAL PROCESS There is also the involvement of the supernatural in the judicial process. Instances here are the use of peace and therefore require chief’s arbitration. It has to be inquired into else it is likely to bring disaster to the community. The one who uttered it is ordered to pay a fee to procure a schnapps and or sheep to appease the ancestors. The case is then settled and the accused punished accordingly. www.knust.edu.gh  INVITATION OF A DEITY Other instance is invitation in public of a deity to intervene in a case (a sort of invocation of a curse). Those present will report it to the chief for arbitration or the one concerned will seek redress in the cult house. This pressurizes alleged offender to admit guilt for sometimes the result is rapid. 37 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  APPEAL TO THE ORACULAR TRIAL OR TRIAL BY ORDEAL Again there is the appeal to oracular trial or trial by ordeal. It involves performance of specific tasks by suspect(s) in the chief’s court/cults house with a ritual specialist in attendance. If the suspect performs the act(s) without any adverse effect, he/she is exonerated and discharged but if proved otherwise, the allegation is held to be true and the culprit is sanctioned appropriately. Thus, in order not to go through the ordeal with its attendant disgrace, people try to conform to avoid their names and that of the families being drag in the mud. 38 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  PRESSURES FROM ELDERS AND LINEAGE HEADS Also in order not to bring the image of the lineage into disrepute as sanctions to an individual affect entire or the immediate family or lineage, kin units admonish members to obey. The principle of collective or corporate responsibility or collateral damage is at play here for the sins of one relative affect the entire group of the family. Thus pressures from other members are brought to bear on individual members to conform. Here the lineage head and elders of the lineage, trial cases, commend good behavior and condemn or punish deviant behavior. 39 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SUPERNATURAL RETRIBUTION Another mechanism is the fear of supernatural retribution. There is a belief that ancestors and other supernatural forces will punish offences. Thus, the fear of incurring the wrath of the ancestral and other supernatural spirits compel people to conform to the accepted ways of behavior. Related to this, is the concept of imminent justice. This is the belief that wrongdoing attracts something unpleasant without delay. Here punishment is rough and likely to happen immediately. 40 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INSTITUTION OF SEVERE SANCTIONS AGAINST CERTAIN CRIMINAL ACTS Yet another mechanism is the institution of severe sanctions against certain criminal acts. The ‘Atopre Dance’ of the Akans is an example of this. It is a punishment of extreme brutality with a great humiliation to the offender and the entire lineage. Here the offender is paraded in public and the limbs and other organs are cut in stages until she/he dies. Crime, which carry this punishment, are murder and adultery especially with a chief’s wife. 41 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  INSTITUTION OF SEVERE SANCTIONS CONT’D There is a similar severe punishment among the Anlo Ewe called Nyikor where according to Nukunya(1992:87) ’’a habitual thief, adulterer or robber is buried alive with only his head above the ground. His groans attract birds of prey like crows and other predators which remove his eyes and devour his dead body’’. These extremes deter other members of the society from committing certain heinous crimes. 42 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE USE OF SATIRICAL ATTACK Last but not the least instrument of social control is the use of personal satirical attack- lampoon especially during festive occasions to comment on the behavior of the members of the society. Institutions such as Apo festival of the people of Techiman in the Brong Ahafo Region, Kpa songs and dance of Labadi and Teshie during the Homowo festival of the people of Ga and the Halo dance of the people of the community to speak on the misdeeds of the other members and in effect call recalcitrant members to order. 43 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE USE OF SATIRICAL ATTACK CONT’D Related to this is the voluntary or instinctive use of lyrics to admonish people to refrain from wrongdoing. It cannot therefore be over emphasized that all the above go a long way in regulating the behavior of the people and for that matter ensuring social control in centralized traditional societies. 44 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SOCIAL CONTROL MECHANISMS IN NON-CENTRALISED (ACEPHALOUS) SOCIETIES In spite of the absence or lack or organized force to enforce decisions or orders of constituted authority, acephalous societies have mechanisms or procedures for resolving disputes and maintaining law and social order. Recall that these societies lack authoritarian leadership, lack courts and judges and no one owes allegiance to anyone outside the descent group. Thus there is no compliance outside the lineage or clan or the descent group. The following are the mechanisms in place to ensure social control: 45 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  MECHANISM SOCIAL CONTROL IN NON CENTRALIZED Institution of Law of Retaliation (Lextalionis) Regulated Vengeance This is where compensation matched the loss incurred. Here a suitable payment is made up for loss incurred, injury or wrong committed. Under this scheme, when one kills, the guilty person is required to replace the victim with someone of the same standing from his lineage or have himself killed; when one destroys a property or another person from another clan or lineage the offender’s own property or that of the lineage and the same standard/quality will be seized for replacement. 46 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  PRESSURES FROM ELDERS Pressures from elders to members of the kin groups to conform to accepted ways of behavior. Within the lineage, elders are accorded the status of “primus inter pares” and they do issue orders and pressurize members of the lineage to behave well. The elders are also respected and as such their advice and opinions carry weight and are sought after. Through their admonishing, they dissuade members from feuds. 47 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SUPERNATURAL RETRIBUTION It is also at play here, that is fear of offending the ancestors and curse from ritual office holders make people conform. 48 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  CO-OPERATION IN FUNERALS AND RITUALS Most often members of neighbouring clans do support their counterparts from the other clans in the territory in their funerals and other rites. It is therefore incumbent on people to do away with deviant behavior in order not to experience boycotts. Another important consideration is ritual collaboration between ritual office holders or complementary roles of “Tendaana” and “Naam” during festivals. At festivals the two perform important rites for the prosperity of the community. www.knust.edu.gh  CO-OPERATION IN FUNERALS AND RITUALS CONT’D The roles of the two counterbalances each other and they must go together. This mutual interdependence prevents conflict or minimizes conflicts and threat of war between the two neighbouring communities in Tallensi. 50 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  Thanks for your audience! Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh 51 P. K. KUMAH