Lecture 2: The Principle of Reciprocity and the Concept of Reasonable Man PDF

Department of Sociology and Social Work Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana LECTURE 2 THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCITY AND THE CONCEPT OF...

Department of Sociology and Social Work Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana LECTURE 2 THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCITY AND THE CONCEPT OF REASONABLE MAN  DEFINITION-THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCITY According to Leach (1982), every social relationship entails a state of indebtedness just as every state of indebtedness entails a social relationship. It stems from duties and reciprocal obligations as a result of status and roles; interactive behavior takes many variables (forms). For instance, infants (kids) smile at their parents or siblings who also smile back. People affirms their friendship by reciprocal hospitality (exchange of cards, gifts etc). Reciprocity is a form of like-for-like relationship which involves give and take. 2 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH DEFINITION-THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCITY CONT’D It is therefore an expression of relationship between a donor and a receiver. 3 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  ATTRIBUTES It is neither immediate nor complete; it consists of rights and obligations. Gifts giving transactions are in a way partial repayments of debt for the relationship between the two does not cease to exist (it is an enduring relationship) when it is activated. Those concerned or the parties involved engage in give and take which might not be immediate, it might be delayed. So whenever the payment of the return gift is postponed, the relationship between the parties is extended in time. 4 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  ATTRIBUTES When a present is made or service rendered without any payment handed on the spot, what has been given is mentally ‘’chalked up’’ by both parties and ultimately a return is made. It may be the same type or a different type; it may take the form of material goods or labour or some action such as wailing at a funeral. It must be emphasized that there is not deliberate monitoring of one who owes what to whom but there is an understanding by the parties that there is a moral obligation to balance things out with time. 5 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  ATTRIBUTES CONT’D At times, the recipient of the first gift deliberately makes the return gift higher in value in order to maintain the social standing. 6 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONCEPT OF RECIPROCITY In most traditional agricultural societies, it is the way to organize labor. Here no wage is paid but people pay back in whatever they have received in labor form, (Nnoboa and Fidodo among the Akans and Ewes respectively). It is an obligation to fulfill ones part at a future date. The relationship persists because of the feeling of indebtedness (it is an open ended relationship). Participation in work is often undertaken as a duty towards the person who wants the work done rather than for the material gain which can be expected from him. 7 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONCEPT OF RECIPROCITY CONT’D One can also cite services people render at social functions such as outdooring and funerals. In the case of funeral for instance, sometimes, close relations of the dead person are not supposed to prepare their own food. They are fed by some other people moved by ‘’sympathy’’. But when next, there is a funeral in the family of the donor, the recipients return the service. 8 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) The modern times, the famous Kulas system described by Malinowski (1992) among the Trobriand Islanders is a typical example. The members of the exchange system are from different Islands and speak different languages. The relationship is of a long duration and is asymmetrical in the sense that those involved are not of the same status, for instance relationship between the rich and the poor. Here the items exchanged are not the same or equal. 9 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D For example, A gives B shells, then B gives to A necklaces. In this cycle of exchange, the Islanders visit other islands with gifts and other things for barter trade. They exchange armlets of white shells (Mwali) and necklaces of red shell (souviana). The gifts are carried from one island to the other in a ring armlets in one direction and the necklace in another. No monetary value is put on the items. The items received are for display and prestige. 10 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D This system of exchange strengthens social interactions and relationships and reinforces peace and unity among the islanders. The overall effect is to link together a great number of people of different status and cultural background in a network of relationships. The partners in the relationship view it as permanent indebtedness, for the exchange serves to manifest this state of indebtedness. People carry out their obligations or duties with no monetary reward. 11 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D It should be noted that prestige accrues from it. Here the principle is also used by people to gain fame or reputation and honour. One who first offers hospitality to guests is considered more honourable. People use it to show wealth and express good neighbourliness. According to Firth, the values which people put on food do not consist simply in its capacity to satisfy hunger, but in the use they can make of it to express their obligation to their relatives, in-laws, their chiefs, their ancestors etc. 12 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D The principle therefore is used to fulfill kinship obligations and recognize authority and a reward for political patronage especially in the case of chiefs. The concept is also used in the traditional societies as a means of food sharing technique as a result of lack of effective food preservation mechanism. For it is carried out in order not to allow food and other perishable goods go waste especially with those who have them in abundance. In some communities according to Nukunya (2003) certain parts or portions of game are reserved for the chiefs, prominent personalities as well as relatives, friends and neighbours. 13 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D This gesture to the chief and the lineage head, to him, is to acknowledge their authority and serve as a reward for their political patronage. And yet to others, he continues that “it is an aspect of generosity, an expression of good neighbourliness, a fulfillment of kinship obligations or a means of starting or extending friendship’’ Nukunya (2003:99). In all cases there is no loser for the principle involves give and take. Even if the return is not the same and immediate, at the appropriate time the giver will receive his/her fair due in relation to what had been given and before that he or she stands in a good stead in the relationship. 14 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D The giver is regarded as a responsible person who must be supported when the need arises. The principle portrays interdependence which indicates that no one is self-sufficient and might need one another’s support in one way or the other in near or distant future. 15 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE KULA EXCHANGE (KULA RING) CONT’D It finds expression in the traditional adage that “no one is capable of undertaking any venture single-handedly without any form of assistance from somewhere”, from farming, building of any form to performance of ritual activities such as outdooring and funerals among others. One therefore requires the services of others in our undertakings. 16 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  LATENT FUNCTIONS The concept of reciprocity acts as a source of social cohesion. It in a way brings people from different walks of life together. It thus strengthens or creates the feeling that binds members of community together to foster cohesion. One can mention emotional and moral support in times of bereavement and warfare. It must further be noted that the principle is a vital means of social control in most societies. It exercises regulative influence on individuals to conform to social norms. 17 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  LATENT FUNCTIONS CONT’D The fear of boycott, reprisals and non-cooperation carries a greater potential for fulfillment of obligations. If one breaches the rule of reciprocity, one will definitely be punished in one form or another for support in most cases hinges on reciprocity. It is likened to the biblical Golden Rule’’ Do onto others what you want them to do unto you’ and the issue of cause and effect-one reaps what one sows. The concept covers the entire fabric of interactions and interrelationships in society. 18 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  LATENT FUNCTIONS CONT’D It is found in the economic, political, religious, family and marriage organisations of society. It is instructive to note that a good return deserves another as indicated by Mauss (1954), there is nothing like free gift. We should also be mindful of the point raised by Firth that ‘’it is more blessing to give than to receive but only because the act of giving entitles one to receive more at a future date (Firth, 1970:75). 19 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  THE CONCEPT OF REASONABLE MAN DEFINITION It is the duty of care which must be exercised by an actor. It means a man of sense (sensible man). It includes ideas of having sound principles - an upright man in English rendering. The concept measures the range of allowed departure from the highest standards of duty and absolute conformity to norms and the minimum adherence which is insisted. 20 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  ATTRIBUTES (FEATURES) It also connotes ‘straightforwardness’, ‘uprightness’, ‘decency’, ‘principle’, and ‘virtue’ among other qualities which most societies demand of people. Further, it suggests impartiality (fairness) on situations of settlement of disputes. It involves norms of customary behavior and reasonable fulfillment of obligations - when one does what he/she ought to do. For example, a family head - a man or one who tries to see that a family dispute is argued out and settled. It therefore implies approbation of a person showing the qualities and conforming to the norms demanded of a certain social position. 21 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  ATTRIBUTES (FEATURES) CONT’D Some of the usages are definite in the sense that a person either has or has not comformed to them. But many norms of behavior are of the general pattern - respect and help your father, treat your lineage head or chief properly, treat your wife well, arbitrate impartially in quarrels among your dependents. In their daily lives people should attempt to abide by these norms. 22 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  IMPORTANCE OF THE CONCEPT The concept of reasonable man is of critical significance to ones role in the society. It is the basis upon which determination is made as to one’s role and the nature and degree of that role. It is of great sociological importance because it covers the whole social process of judging people against norms and therefore very significant when it is used in the judicial process. Here, judges use this aspect to set up minimum standards which people ought to observe if they are not be punished for various social positions. 23 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  IMPORTANCE OF THE CONCEPT CONT’D The concept therefore plays an important role in most traditional legal systems. It is a standard imposed on individuals in a given situation. It is a sort of yardstick of judgment. Most judicial systems apply this principle. It is used to indicate what a prudent person would have done in a given situation. The principle is based on a question such as “what would a reasonable person have done under a given circumstance?’’ It is a level of conduct or behavior that is up or at par with the acceptable standard established by the norms of the society. 24 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  IMPORTANCE OF THE CONCEPT CONT’D When a case happens, the question people often ask is “did the person do what a prudent person would have done and would have been expected to do in a similar situation? It fosters peace, deters carelessness and reward good behavior. It is the prime consideration when it comes to settlement of disputes. It helps in governance and regulation of behavior. It is an objective tool which helps prevent or avoid subjective evaluations. 25 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  IMPORTANCE OF THE CONCEPT CONT’D It allows uniformity of behavior and it is an indication of equality (it implies equality). It has come to stand for the appropriate level of case in various aspects of behavior, connoting conduct of behavior required of persons in social interactions and interrelationships. 26 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  DIFFICULTIES-(PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF THE CONCEPT) Utopia (an ideal or perfect situation)-There is the problem of using idealized person as a legal standard-imagined as against actual person. The contention is that which of the characteristics of the imagined (ideal) person should form the basis of judgment of the actual person? This particularly has to do with unvarying standards which all are held regardless of personal attributes such as physical ability. The concept therefore is regarded as indifferent to the interest of others. www.knust.edu.gh  DIFFICULTIES-(PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF THE CONCEPT) CONT’D Issue of Feminists-Broader treatment of gender issues. Some argue that the concept is biased on the grounds of gender, race and class. For example, a case of judging a woman by standard other than that taken from one of her sex. For instance, situations involving female and male. 28 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  DIFFICULTIES-(PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF THE CONCEPT). CONT’D Disjuncture of age and intelligence (cognitive shortcoming)-The concept does not apply to one’s ability to reason but rather the prudence with which the person acts under the circumstances. Intellectual shortcoming therefore prevents the individual from acting as a reasonable person would have. It is argued that what is on one’s mind form his intent. Other issues of concern here include the age of the reasonable person and the issue of children and the mentally retarded. 29 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  DIFFICULTIES-(PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF THE CONCEPT). CONT’D The age of the reasonable person is problematic. The question is what is the age of the reasonable person?. 30 Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh P. K. KUMAH  Thanks for your audience! Department of Sociology and Social Work www.knust.edu.gh 31 P. K. KUMAH