Social Psychology: Group Influence (PDF)

**GROUP INFLUENCE** **GROUP** - Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, **interact with and influence one another** and perceive one another as **\"us.\"** - Different groups help us meet different human needs to affiliate **(to belong to and connect with others)**,...

**GROUP INFLUENCE** **GROUP** - Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, **interact with and influence one another** and perceive one another as **\"us.\"** - Different groups help us meet different human needs to affiliate **(to belong to and connect with others)**, to achieve, and to **gain a social identity.** - We consider three effects of others\' mere presence: **social facilitation, social loafing, and deindividuation.** - nature to affiliate other\'s  - group project (sense of achievement) - social identity (belong to the group) **[SOCIAL FACILITATION]** **HOW ARE WE AFFECTED BY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS?** - Social psychology\'s most elementary issue concerns the mere presence of others. Some early experiments on this question found that **performance improved with co-actors present** (Co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity). **Others found that the presence of others can hurt performance.** **SOCIAL FACILITATION**: the tendency of people to perform simple or well- learned tasks (dominant response) better **when others are present.** **Ex:** Your performance when there is an audience. - natural tendency to perform well when you are aware you perform your own nature. - social facilitation is when there's a tendency for you to feel motivated by the presence of your audience. **(Social arousal)**  **THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL AROUSAL** - Other\'s presence Arousal Strengthens dominant responses enhancing easy behavior/Impairing difficult behavior. - Being around co-actors can increase performance. It helps you perform better on easy tasks but may make it harder to do difficult ones. **WHY ARE WE AROUSED IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS?** **EVALUATION APPREHENSION** - We are **concern for how others are evaluating us.** - The self-consciousness we feel when being evaluated can also **interfere with behaviors that we perform best automatically.** **EX: "SPOTLIGHT EFFECT" ** **DRIVEN BY DISTRACTION** - When we wonder how co- actors are doing or **how an audience is reacting, we become distracted.** - This conflict between paying attention to others and paying attention to the task **overloads our cognitive system, causing arousal.** - **MERE PRESENCE- "social arousal"** **Ex: we perform well when we are aware that there\'s a evaluation ** **SOCIAL LOAFING** - People often work less hard when they are part of a group working toward a common goal compared to when they are responsible for their own efforts. **Ex: Class project, tug-of-war, open faucet in school CR, shouting in a concert** - **EFFORT DECREASES AS GROUP SIZE INCREASES.** **FREE RIDERS**: people who are benefit from the group but give little in return. - **natural born leaders** **SOCIAL FACILITATION OR SOCIAL LOAFING** - Others presence - Individual efforts evaluated - Evaluation apprehension - Arousal: **SOCIAL FACILITATION** Others presence - Individual efforts pooled and NOT evaluated - No evaluation apprehension - Less arousal: **SOCIAL LOAFING** **[WHEN DO PEOPLE LOSE THEIR SENSE OF SELF IN GROUPS?]** **DEINDIVIDUATION** - A phenomenon in which **Individuals in a group setting believe they cannot be identified under the cover of the crowd,** which reduces accountability and results in non-normative behavior. - **Ex: internet behavior, mob mentality, looters** **CIRCUMSTANCES ELICIT THIS PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE** - **Ex:** Group Size/ Anonymity/ Arousing & distracting activities - **Deindividuation is less likely when self-awareness is high.** **DEINDIVIDUATION** - Children were more likely to transgress by taking extra Halloween candy when in a group, when anonymous, and, especially, when deindividuated by the combination of group immersion and anonymity. **[GROUP POLARIZATION: DO GROUPS INTENSIFY OUR OPINIONS?]** **GROUP POLARIZATION** - The **beliefs, attitudes, and decisions of groups tend to be more amplified or more extreme than** those held by individual group members. - may voices but not significant, kung ano belief/decision making ng group iyon na ang valid/center so it tends go w/ the flow - information Influence  **INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE** - influence that results from accepting evidence about reality. **NORMATIVE INFLUENCE** - influence based on a person\'s desire to be accepted or admired by others. - yung group may norm na masiyahin dapat **SOCIAL COMPARISON**  - evaluating one\'s opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others. - birds feather flock together  **PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE** - A false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding. - **Ex:** The 4th point wasn\'t clear, but no one else has doubts! - It occurs when individuals think their opinions differ from the group, leading to misunderstandings. They might see specific behaviors and assume consensus, even if it\'s false. As a result, **they hold back their views, causing more confusion**. **[GROUPTHINK: DO GROUPS HINDER OR ASSIST GOOD DECISION?]** **GROUPTHINK** - A **phenomenon in which members of a group will conform to majority opinion** to maintain group harmony rather than stating their own opinions. **GROUPTHINK SPROUTS INCLUDES:** - a friendly, **COHESIVE** group. - relative **ISOLATION** of the group from dissenting view-points - a **DIRECTIVE LEADER** who signals what decision they favors. **[SYMPTOMS OF GROUPTHINK]** **ILLUSION OF INVULNERABILITY:** Excessive optimism that blind them to warnings of danger. - **perfect group** **UNQUESTIONED BELIEF IN THE GROUP\'S MORALITY:** Members assume the inherent morality of their group and ignore ethical and moral issues. - lahat ng belief unquestionable **RATIONALIZATION**: The groups discount challenges by collectively justifying their decisions. - justification wrongdoings **STEREOTYPED VIEW OF OPPONENT:** Group Thinkers consider their enemies too evil to negotiate with. - lahat ng opponent mali sila lang tama **CONFORMITY PRESSURE**: Group members rebuffed those who raised doubts about the group\'s assumptions and plans. - pinapatahimik **SELF-CENSORSHIP**: To avoid uncomfortable disagreements, members withheld or discounted their misgivings. - Di ko nalang sasabihin (tolerate) **ILLUSION OF UNANIMITY:** Self-censorship and pressure not to puncture the consensus create an illusion of unanimity. - nagkakagulo pero tingin pa rin solid **MINDGUARDS:** Some members protect the group from information that would call into question the effectiveness or morality of its decisions. - kung ano pinapaniwalaan the group will protect kahit may info Hindi pinapakinggan. **[PREVENTING GROUPTHINK]** - **BE IMPARTIAL.** Do not endorse any position. - **ENCOURAGE CRITICAL EVALUATION**. Assign a \"devil\'s advocate.\" - **OCCASIONALLY SUBDIVIDE THE GROUP.** Then reunite to air differences. - **WELCOME CRITIQUES.** from outside experts and associates. - Call a **SECOND-CHANCE** meeting to air any lingering doubts. from outside experts and associates. **MINORITY: HOW DO INDIVIDUALS INFLUENCE THE GROUP?** **IDENTIFY WHAT MAKES SOME INDIVIDUALS EFFECTIVE.** - Consistency/Self-confidence/Defections from the majority **LEADERSHIP** - The process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group. **TASK LEADERSHIP** - Leadership that organizes work, sets standards, and focuses on goals. **SOCIAL LEADERSHIP** - Leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support. **PREJUDICE** - A **preconceived negative judgment** of a group and its individual members. **STEREOTYPE** - A belief about the personal attributes of a group or people. **To stereotype is to generalize.** (Sometimes inaccurate and sometimes accurate) **DISCRIMINATION** - **Unjustified negative behavior** toward a group or its members - **Discriminatory behavior** often has its source in prejudicial attitudes. **RACISM** - An individual\'s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior **toward people of a given race.** **SEXISM** - An individual\'s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior **toward people of a given sex.** **RACIAL PREJUDICE** - Nature doesn\'t cluster races in neatly **defined categories.** - Researches show that racial prejudice **changes overtime.** **SUBTLE RACIAL PREJUDICE:** - **Employment discrimination** - **Favoritism galore** - **Traffic stops** - **Patronization** **GENDER PREJUDICE** - **GENDER STEREOTYPES -** people\'s beliefs about how women and men do behave. - **NORMS** are prescriptive; **stereotypes** are descriptive. - Strong gender stereotypes exist, and, as often happens, **members of the stereotyped group accept them.** - Stereotypes are generalizations about a group of people and **may be true, false**, or overgeneralized from a kernel of truth. **LGBT PREJUDICE** - Most of the world\'s gay and lesbian people cannot comfortably disclose **who they are and whom they love.** - In Western countries, anti-gay prejudice, though rapidly diminishing, endures: - **JOB DISCRIMINATION.** - **GAY MARRIAGE SUPPORT IS MIXED BUT INCREASING.** - **HARASSMENT HURTS.** - **REJECTION HAPPENS.** - More countries have **legalized marriages between two men or two women.** **WHAT ARE THE [SOCIAL SOURCES] OF PREJUDICE?** **SOCIAL INEQUALITIES** - A principle to remember: **Unequal status breeds prejudice.** **SOCIAL DOMINANCE ORIENTATION** - A motivation to have one\'s group dominate other social groups. **View people in terms of hierarchies.** **SOCIALIZATION** - The influence of **family socialization appears in children\'s prejudices,** which often mirror those perceived in their mothers (Castellie et al., 2007) **RELIGION** - A more powerful justification than to believe that **God has ordained the existing social order.** **CONFORMITY** - If prejudice is socially accepted, **many people will follow the path of least resistance** and conform to the fashion. **INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT** - Social institutions may **support prejudice through overt policies** such as segregation. **MEDIA** - **Unintended bias:** Is lighter skin \"normal\"? **[WHAT ARE THE MOTIVATIONAL SOURCES OF PREJUDICE?]** **SCAPEGOAT THEORY:** *Frustration (from the blocking of a goal) feeds hostility.* When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, **we often redirect our hostility.** **REALISTIC GROUP CONFLICT THEORY:** The theory that prejudice arises from **competition between groups for scarce resources.** **SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY:** The \"we\" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to \"Who am 17 that comes from our group memberships. **INGROUP:** **\"Us\"**--- a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity. **OUTGROUP:** **\"Them"**--- a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup. - When people\'s personal and social identities become fused- when the boundary between self and group blurs **they become more willing to fight or die for their group.** - **IN-GROUP BIAS**: the tendency to favor one\'s own group. **WHAT ARE THE [COGNITIVE SOURCES] OF PREJUDICE?** - How does the way we think about the world influence our stereotypes? And how do our stereotypes affect our everyday judgments? **CATEGORIZATION** - Classifying people into groups. - Perceived similarities and differences. **OUTGROUP HOMOGENEITY EFFECT** - Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. **Thus \"they are alike; we are diverse.\"** **OWN-RACE BIAS** - The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race. **(Also called the cross-race effect or other-race effect.)** **DISTINCTIVENESS** - Perceiving people who stand out. **DISTINCTIVENESS FEEDS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS** - When surrounded by Whites, Blacks sometimes detect people reacting to their distinctiveness. **DISTINCTIVE EVENTS FOSTER ILLUSORY CORRELATIONS** - Italians are emotional, Filipinos are happy go lucky individuals. **ATTRIBUTION** - We attribute others\' behavior so much to their inner dispositions that we discount important situational forces. **GROUP-SERVING BIAS** - Explaining away outgroup members\' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions. **JUST-WORLD PHENOMENON** - The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. **[WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF PREJUDICE?]** **SELF-PERPETUATING PREJUDGEMENTS** - Whenever a group member behaves as expected, we duly note the fact; **our prior belief is confirmed.** - *Women reportedly misremember their math.* **SUBTYPING:** Accommodating individuals who deviate from one\'s stereotype by thinking of them as **\"exceptions to the rule.\"** **SUBGROUPING:** Accommodating individuals who **deviate from one\'s stereotype by forming a new stereotype** about this subset of the group. **DISCRIMINATION\'S IMPACT:** the Self- Fulfilling Prophecy - *Psychology students are emotionally unstable individuals*. **SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY**: process through which an originally false expectation or discrimination leads to its own confirmation. - Does discrimination indeed affect its victims? **SOCIAL BELIEFS CAN BE SELF- CONFIRMING.** **STEREOTYPE THREAT:** A disruptive concern arises when a person faces a negative stereotype, fearing they will be judged according to it. - *Psychology students are emotionally unstable individuals.* - A self-confirming apprehension that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. **CAN WE REDUCE PREJUDICE?** - If unequal status breeds prejudice, **WE CAN SEEK TO CREATE COOPERATIVE, EQUAL-STATUS RELATIONSHIPS.** - If prejudice rationalizes discriminatory behavior, **WE CAN MANDATE NONDISCRIMINATION.** - If social institutions support prejudice, **WE CAN PULL OUT THOSE SUPPORTS.** - If outgroups seem more homogeneous than they really are, **WE CAN MAKE EFFORTS TO PERSONALIZE THEIR MEMBERS.** - If our automatic prejudices lead us to feel guilt, **WE CAN USE THAT GUILT TO MOTIVATE OURSELVES TO BREAK THE PREJUDICE HABIT.** **AGGRESSION** **It is a physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone ** ** 4 kinds of Agression** **Physical Aggression** **Hurting someone else\'s body.** **Social Aggression** **Hurting someone else\'s feelings or threatening their relationships. Sometimes called relational aggression (cyberbullying and some forms of in-person bullying).** **Hostile Aggression** **Aggression that springs from anger and its goal is to Injure (anger that causes fighting).** **Instrumental Aggression** **Aggression that aims to injure, but only as means to some other end (hostage taking, terrorism).** **Both physical and social aggression can be either hostile or instrumental.** **SOME THEORIES OF AGGRESSION** **Instinctive View** **An Innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species.** **-fight or flight ** **Neural Influences** **Brain neural systems in both animals and humans that facilitate aggression. When the scientists activate those brain areas, hostility increases, when they deactivate them. hostility decreases.** **-part of neural impulse ** **Genetic Influences** **Heredity influences the neural system\'s sensitivity to aggressive cues. It has long been known that animals.can be bred for aggressiveness.** **Biochemical Influences** **Blood chemistry also influences neural sensitivity to aggressive stimulation** **-outside intervention nagkakaroon ng aggression** ***Alcohol *** ***Hormonal influences*** ***Poor diet*** ***Biology and behavior interact*** **SOME THEORIES OF AGGRESSION** **Frustration-Aggression Theory** **is anything that blocks us from attaining a goal. Frustration grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expected gratification, and when the blocking is complete.** **Displacement** **The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration.** **Generally the new target is a safer more socially acceptable target.** **Relative Deprivation** **The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself** **-buti pa sila ganon, ako Hindi.** **Social-Learning Theory** **The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and Imitating and by being rewarded and punished.** **-Vicarious Learning-we learn exp. From other\'s(Albert Bandura)** **The Rewards of Aggression** **Aggression as revenge can feel satisfying: most people report feeling good after they stick pins in a voodoo doll representing a hated person.** **Catharsis(rant)-treatment/therapy ** **SOME INFLUENCES OF AGGRESSION** **Aversive Incidents** **Discomfort we feel both physical and verbal that lead us to aversive experience** **Pain** **Heat** **Attacks** **Crowding** **Arousal** **So far, we have seen that various aversive stimulations can arouse anger. Do other types of arousal, such as during exercise or sexual excitement, have a similar effect?** **Sexual arousal and other forms of arousal, such as anger, can therefore amplify one another (Zillmann, 1989). Love is never so passionate as after a fight or a fright-one reason why it\'s so popular to take a hot date to a horror movie.** **In the laboratory, erotic stimuli are more arousing to people who have just been frightened. Similarly, the arousal of a roller-coaster ride may spill over into romantic feeling for one\'s partner.** **Aggression Cues** **In one experiment children who had just played with toy guns became more willing to knock down another child\'s blocks.** **In a meta-analysis of 78 independent studies, the mere presence of weapons increased aggressive thoughts and behaviors, known as the \"weapons effect.** **In 130 studies across 10 countries, laws restricting firearms sales were followed by reductions in gun crimes (San-taella-Tenorio et al., 2016)** **Media Influences: Pornography and Sexual Violence** **Social psychologists report that viewing such fictional scenes of a man overpowering and arousing a woman can (a) distort men\'s (and possibly women\'s) perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion and (b) increase men\'s aggression against women.** **Repeated exposure to erotic films featuring quick, uncommitted sex also tends to** - **decrease attraction for one\'s partner.** - **increase acceptance of extramarital sex & of women\'s sexual submission to men.** - **Increase men\'s perceiving women in sexual terms.** **Male hypoactive sexual desire disorder ** **-lalaki na, kahit pakitaan mo ng babaeng naka hubad walang sexual arousal ** **Hyperactive sexual desire disorder ** **-mahawakan lang nag arousal na agad** **Media Influences: Television, Movies, and the Internet** **Studies of television viewing and aggression aim to identify effects more subtle and pervasive than the occasional \"copycat\" murders that capture public attention** **Do viewers imitate violent models? Examples of children reenacting TV violence abound from** **the 13-year-old who killed his 5-year-old sister imitating wrestling moves he\'d seen on TV. (AP 2015) to an Indian boy who died when his brothers imitated a hanging they\'d seen in a cartoon (Indo-Asian News Service, 2013),** **Prosocial behavior- Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior, the opposite of antisocial behavior.** **Social Scripts- Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations.** **Cocomelon (Hyperstimulating condition)** **-behavioral problem/attentional problem** **-bright color/intense** **-character** **-fast pacing** **-melody/rhythm ** **-excessive dopamine** **Media influences: Video games** **-habitual** **Social contagion-nakak influence** **ATTRACTION AND INTIMACY** **\"The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot be seen nor even touched, but just felt in the heart.\"** **- Hellen Keller** **Points for Discussion** **How important is \"the need to belong?\"** **What leads to friendship and attraction?** **What is love?** **What enables close relationships?** **What hurts relationships?** **The Need to Belong** **A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.** **Ostracism. When people are excluded or ignored, they feel stressed and have less self- control. Social pain mimics physical pain.** **-when u feel excluded/ignored** **Ostracism hurts even when it comes from a despised group, even when it\'s expected, and even when it\'s online or via social media.** **-ability to be part of a group/relationship** **What leads to Friendship and Attraction?** **PROXIMITY** **Geographical nearness. More precisely, \"functional distance\" powerfully predicts liking.** **-interaction** **INTERACTION** **It is how often people\'s path cross. Proximity breeds liking because of availability.** **-always available ** **ANTICIPATION OF INTERACTION** **The phenomenon is adaptive Anticipatory liking încreases the chance of forming a rewarding relationship.** **-looking forward to talk to** **MERE EXPOSURE** **Tendency to develop preferences for things simply because we are familiar with them.** **-things that connected with that person** **What leads to Friendship and Attraction?** **PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS** **Preferences about the physical appearance of other people particularly with reference to their facial features and body proportions.** **-not the standard of society** **ATTRACTIVENESS AND DATING** **Physical attractiveness is a moderately good predictor of frequent dating.** **-good-looking more dating** **MATCHING PHENOMENON** **Individuals tend to choose partners who are a \"good match\" in attractiveness and other traits** **-traits matching** **PHYSICAL- ATTRACTIVENESS STEREOTYPE** **Physically attractive people pourese other socially desirable traits is often summarised as \"What is beautiful is good."** **-beauty(good people)** **SIMILARITY** **Likeness begets liking, dissimilarity breeds dislike.** **Do opposites attract?** **COMPLEMENTARITY** **The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other.** **LIKING THOSE WHO LIKE US** **Liking is usually mutual. Proximity and attractiveness influence our initial attraction to someone, and similarity influences longer term attraction as well.** **INGRATIATION** **The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another\'s favor.** **-pambobola** **REWARD THEORY OF ATTRACTION** **The theory suggests that we prefer those whose behavior rewards us or those with whom we associate rewarding events.** ***\"If you talk to me, I like you more. If we share the same beliefs. I like you more. I can talk about them with you and you validate my own."*** **What is love?** **STERNBERG\'S LOVE TRIANGLE** **According to Robert Sternberg (1986), all love experiences are built on three emotional components, passion, intimacy or liking, and commitment.** **Passion is an intense emotional response to the other person.** **-u paying attention to others even there\'s distraction ** **Intimacy/Liking is warmth, closeness, and sharing of self in a relationship.** **-you\'re readiness to share stories** **Commitment is the decision to maintain the relationship.** **-u stay to that person/relationship even without love** **What is love?** **STERNBERG\'S LOVE TRIANGLE** **By combining two of the love types in various ways, Sternberg derives four other types of love:** **Romantic love (intimacy + passion)** **Companionate love (intimacy + commitment)** **Fatuous love (passion + commitment).** **Finally, consummate love combines all three: passion plus commitment plus intimacy.** ** ** **No love (fatuous)** **Passion alone-crush** **Commitment alone-empty** **Romantic love (physical/sexual attraction)** **Liking-gusto mo lang sya like rewarding/common denominator (emotional attractiveness)** **Passion** **Companionate-commitment lagi kausap but don\'t have romantic love** **Consummate love-has all the type of love** **A TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF LOVE** **Comprises passionate love and companionate love. its fundamental and primary elements From these two fundamental elements derive all the variety of love that people experience-both good and bad.** **Passionate love is an intense longing for one\'s beloved, which can be experienced in a joyful emotional union and sexual fulfillment or in the terrible despair of rejection.** **Companionate love is a quieter form of love associated with affection, companionship, friendship, and long- term commitment to relationships.** **What enables close relationships?** **ATTACHMENT ** **It is an emotional bond with another person** **SECURE ATTACHMENT** **Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy.** **-liking** **AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT** **Characterized by discomfort or resistance to closeness with others (an insecure attachment styles)** **-separate when attached** **-abandonment ** **ANXIOUS ATTACHMENT** **Attachments marked by anxiety er ambivalence (an insecure Attachment styles)** **-kapag Hindi nya nakikita or na ffeel nya na iiwan sya(something\'s wrong) leads to anxiety ** **SIGNS OF EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT** **Close and connected to that person (proximity).** **Comfortable with being vulnerable, open, and trusting towards that person.** **That you can rely on that person to be responsive and available to your needs.** **Confident in your ability of self-expression within the relationship.** **What enables close relationships?** **EQUITY** **A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it.** **What you and your partner get out of a relationship should be proportional to what you each put into it.** **SELF-DISCLOSURE** **Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.** **-shadow self ** **DISCLOSURE RECIPROCITY** **The tendency for one person\'s intimacy of self- disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.** **What hurts relationship ** **CONFLICT** **As stated boldly, conflict is the primary cause of marital dissolution, and communication problems are the chief reason given for getting divorced (Gottman, 1998).** **However, studies have found that the number of conflicts people have and the things they argue over are less important than how they handle conflicts.** **HARSH SETUP AND NEGATIVE RECIPROCITY** **This style refers to a sequence where an initial negative comment, often designed to hurt, only serves to stimulate a negative response from the partner and an increasing cycle of deliberately hurtful comments or insults.** **Some researchers have commented on the negative power of the harsh setup by noting that \"one zinger can erase 20 acts of kindness."** **DEMAND-WITHDRAW PATTERN AND STONEWALLING** **1) criticism and complaining from one partner that often takes the form of a harsh setup and negative reciprocity, and it is followed by** **2) a sense of contempt from the other that** **3) leads to defensiveness and** **4) ends with withdrawal.** **Stonewalling-repeated cycle ** **NEGATIVE SENTIMENT OVERRIDE** **It happens when you\'ve had some bad experiences in the past, and those experiences begin to distort the way you interpret everything your partner says and does.** **It causes several adverse physical reactions, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure and stimulation of the \"fight or flight\" stress response. These responses result in an inability to engage in positive problem-solving.** **-tapos na yung away naulit nanaman binabalik yung dati** **REPAIR ATTEMPTS** **These refer to efforts to calm down a tense situation or to deescalate tension. When repair attempts fail or are not attempted, the couple is in trouble.** **\ Another negative indicator is distressed couples choosing to remember mainly unhappy moments in their shared history. Although they used to remember their pleasant moments together, now they can\'t help recalling arguments, hurts, and bitter disappointments.** **HELPING** **Topics** **Why do we help?** **When will we help?** **Who will help?** **How can we increase helping?** **Why do we help?** **Altruism** **A motive to increase another\'s welfare without conscious regard for one\'s self-interests** **An altruistic person is concerned and helpful even when no benefits are offered or expected in return.** **-Jesus\' parable of the Good Samaritan** **-taga salo** **-naturally helping ** **Social-exchange Theory** **The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one\'s rewards and minimize one\'s costs.** **-(blood donation)** **-can we predict helping?** **-weighting if we should help or not** - **Increasing positive emotion** - **Reducing negative emotion** - **Guilt** - **Social norms** **Why do we help?** **Social Norms** **Often, we help others not because we have calculated consciously that such behavior is in our self-interest but because something tells us we ought to.** **-duty** - **Reciprocity Norm** **To those who help us, we should return help, not harm.** **-goodness should be returned ** - **Social Capital** **The mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network.** **-emotional investment(supportive support)** - **Social-responsibility Norm** **An expectation that people will help those needing help.** **-storm** **Evolutionary Psychology** **Our genes drive us in adaptive ways that have maximized their chance of survival.\ ** - **Kin Selection** **The idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one\'s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes.** **-parents protect own offspring ** - **Reciprocity** **An organism helps another.** **-by nature to help** - **Group Selection** **Groups of mutually supportive altruists outlast groups of non-altruists** **-ants/bees(common good of colony)** **Egoistic and Altruistic Routes of Helping** **Viewing another\'s distress can evoke a mixture of self-focused distress and other- focused empathy, Researchers agree that distress triggers egoistic motives.** **When will we help** **Bystander effect** **The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.** **-no** **Helping when someone else does ** **When they have just observed someone else helping.** **Time Pressure** **Having at least a little spare time; those in a hurry are less likely to help.** **Similarity** **We tend to help those whom we perceive as being similar to us.** **Who will help** **We also need to consider the helpers\' dispositions, including, for example, their personality traits, gender, and religious values.** **Personality and Altruism** **Individual differences** **Network of traits** **Particular situations** **Personality Traits** **Modest relationships were Found between helping and certain personality variables such as a need for social approval** **Social Status** **Lest/privileged people wore more cross trutting and neiptu** **Religious Faith** **Religious faith predicts long-term altruism, as reflected in volunteerism and charitable contributions.** **Gender** **Men have been observed to help mon in dangerous situations** **women as volunteers and charitable givers** **How can we increase helping?** **Moral Exclusion. When people see certain individuals or groups as not deserving of moral values and fairness rules.** **-people who has different moral leads to exclusion** **Moral Inclusion. Regarding others as within one\'s circle of moral concern.** **-no exception **