Sociology Final Review PDF

Sociology Final Stratification – systems of inequality Strata – groups having di9erence amounts of power, resources, and rewards (ex. women, men, blacks whites) Mobility – movement within stratification system o Vertical – changing classes (factory worker -> college p...

Sociology Final Stratification – systems of inequality Strata – groups having di9erence amounts of power, resources, and rewards (ex. women, men, blacks whites) Mobility – movement within stratification system o Vertical – changing classes (factory worker -> college professor) o Horizontal – changes within class (working at Lowes -> working at Home Depot) o Intergenerational – between generations (dad works in factory, son works at a college) o Intragenerational – within one’s lifetime (McDonald’s worker at 20, billionaire at 40) o Individual – mobility caused by one’s actions (good paying job- you quit and become poor) o Structural – mobility caused by changes in social structure (great depression -> losing job) **most mobility due to structural mobility Status – social groups/prestige o Ascribed - assigned (ex. King/Queen) o Achieved - earned (ex. getting BSN to be a nurse) Open vs. Closed Systems o Open – allows for mobility (ex. poor to rich); democracy o Closed – does NOT allow for mobility (ex. poor stays poor); caste system Stratification Systems Slavery Caste Estate Class Example U.S. South pre- Traditional Hindu Middle Ages in U.S. system Civil War society Europe (Capitalism) (Feudalism) Economic Rural/agricultural Rural/agricultural Rural/agricultural Urban/industrial/post- Basis **Religion **Tradition industrial Ascribed vs. Ascribed TOTALLY Ascribed Ascribed (not Achieved (in theory) Achieved stable b/c can be Status poor and marry king to change status) Open vs. Closed TOTALLY Closed Closed (not total) Open (in theory) Closed o Caste – untouchables -> … -> Brahmin (religious leader; ascribed) o Estate – 1st Estate (clergy/priests) -> 2nd Estate (nobility/aristocracy) -> 3rd Estate (commoners) Is Stratification Necessary? o Davis + Moore (1940s) – structural functionalism; argue that inequality IS necessary + beneficial o Marx – conflict theory; argue that inequality is NOT necessary + beneficial Meritocracy – system of inequality in which brightest and most motivated rise to the top Social Class SES – socioeconomic status; mathematical indicator of inequality Class – economic grouping Status – prestige Party – political grouping; di9erent groups have more political power Income – how much one makes Wealth – total # of assets that one has Class Structure in America o Upper Class (2%) – rich either by old money (inherited) or new riches (1st gen billionaires) o Middle Class (35-40%) § Upper Middle (10%) – white-collar professionals (accountant, doctor, lawyer); need advanced degrees (M.D., PhD) § Lower Middle (25-30%) – skilled jobs, may not have advanced degrees (nurse, PA) o Working Class (40%) – blue-collar jobs (contractor, mailman, plumber) § Upper Working (25%) § Lower Working (15%) – service + information (Walmart, McDonald’s, receptionist); unskilled labor, often w/ no college degrees; work full-time, but poor; Precariat - precarious + proletariat (ex. 5 hours on Uber, 3 hours on TikTok; not a stable, secure job) o Poor (15-20%) – ex. single mothers Changes from Industrial U.S. (1950s) -> Post-Industrial U.S. (now) o Upper-Middle class has grown in size + influence o Lower-Middle class + Upper-Working class have shrunk in size + income o Lower-Working class +Poor have increased in size **Industrial Economy -> Service + Information Economy Race and Ethnicity Race – biological concept + socially constructed concept (produced in history) Ethnicity – cultural concept Majority – dominant; disproportionate amount of power, resources, and rewards Minority – subordinate Ethnocentrism – evaluation of other cultures based on opinions formed from one culture’s customs and beliefs Prejudice – belief/set of attitudes; rigid + unfair generalization of a group of people Discrimination – set of behaviors; unequal treatment of various categories of people Institutional Prejudice and Discrimination – bias built into operation of societies’ institutions Theories of Prejudice o Scapegoat Theories – prejudice rises from one group blaming another group for its own problems (ex. Jews blamed for plague in Germany)  o Conflict Theories – prejudice rises from dominant groups thinking they’re better than subordinate groups o Authoritarian Personality (1950) – certain personality types more driven to be antisemitic, racist, fascist, etc. Models of Outcomes of Racial and Ethnic Relations o Elimination – dominant group gets rid of subordinate groups § Expulsion – kick out (illegal immigrants) § Genocide – attempted killing of an entire and large category of people b/c race, ethnicity, religion, etc. (Holocaust) o Accommodation –dominant group accommodates to subordinate groups to maintain distinctiveness § Segregation – isolation § Cultural Pluralism – maintain distinctiveness in private sphere (home, family) and share dominance in public sphere (ex. speaking Spanish at home, but English in public) o Assimilation – lines blurred; become one § Anglo-Conformity – subordinates become like dominant (WASP – White Anglo- Saxon Protestants) § The Melting Pot – new cultural identity; dominant becomes more like subordinates and vice-versa Sex and Gender Sex – biological concept (males and females) Gender – social and cultural concept (masculine and feminine) Gender Role – role that conforms to stereotype association w/ relative sex (ex. male exerts masculinity through aggression and toughness) Matriarchy – form of social organization in which females dominate males Patriarchy - form of social organization in which males dominate females Sexism – belief that one sex is innately superior to another Anthropological Studies o Margaret Mead (1930s) – sex + gender in New Guinea § Arapesh Mountains – men + women were very similar § Mundugumor Head Hunters –men + women were more like stereotypical males § Tchambuli – reversed; men more like western stereotypes of women, women more like western stereotypes of men o Deborah Gewertz (1970s) – claimed Mead’s reverse hypothesis about Tchambuli was INCORRECT; claimed men rebuilt houses to do loss of land, which was temporary role and that Mead didn’t consider political/historical context o Murdock (1930s) – looked at 200 pre-industrial societies § Women – home and childcare § Men – war and work  § Both shared duties in agriculture, building homes, and tattooing Gendered Occupational Segregation – truck drivers are usually men, childcare workers are usually women Feminist Argument: Comparable Worth – jobs w/ same amount of education, training, and risk should get paid the same (ex. truck drivers and childcare workers should be paid the same) Feminism – support of social equality for women and men; opposite of sexism and patriarchy o Liberal (political) – see cause as America not living up to it’s democratic values of equality and liberty; solution is laws and policies o Socialist (economic) -problem is rooted in economics (capitalism); ex. values rewarded in capitalism are stereotypical masculine values (strong, independent, not emotional) o Radical (men) – problem lies in cultural system; gender categories- specifically male gender is problem Power – ability to get what you want from someone, even if they resist Coercion - force Authority (Weber) – person does something b/c think person asking has authority/right to ask o Traditional Authority – based on tradition and way we’ve always done things (ex. following church values, plants you crop, in medieval times- why do they have a king… b/c always have kings so it’s normal) o Charismatic Authority – rooted in charisma, an undefinable quality that causes people to follow them (ex. cult leaders, MLK, Hitler) o Rational Legal Authority – rooted in set of rules/laws (ex. get pulled over, cop asks for license + registration, give to him b/c following rules) Three Dimensions of Power (Lukes) o Controlling Behaviors – observable behaviors (ex. man holding gun to another person’s head/putting military tanks in the street) o Controlling Agendas/Arenas – observable + HIDDEN from public (ex. trashes Elon Musk, blocked from Twitter/journalist deciding what to/to not publish) o Controlling Ideas – ideology; HIDDEN; usually in terms of religion (ex. women in Afghanistan believe their treatment is the way it should be) Who Rules America? o Pluralist Model – analysis of politics that sees power as spread among many competing groups o Power Elite – analysis of politics that sees power as concentrated among the rich Political Sociology Democracy – a political system that gives power to the people as a whole Direct (Participatory) Democracy – people get to decide everything Representative Democracy – elected representatives make decisions Enlightenment Meaning of Democracy – democracy embredded in enlightenment values (liberty, equality, and tolerance)  Three Meanings of Democracy o System of Voting – electing representatives and policies o Majority Rule – laws, policies, practices of the government o Citizenship – living democracy on a daily basis; form of being and responsibility **to be a democracy, must have all three qualities Four Meanings of Equality o Opportunity – everyone starts at the same place and has an equal shot (no matter where you begin, can end anywhere) o Outcome – everyone ends at the same place (ex. everybody makes same amount of money, no matter their job) o Equity – fairness/justice o Conditions (Tocqueville) – psychological and social; everybody views themselves no more/no less than others AND America is a meritocracy with an open mobility system Three Meanings of Liberty o Freedom FROM – ex. free prison -> free FROM captivity o Freedom TO – choice (ex. free to buy a coke, free to skip class) o Freedom FOR – ONLY for adults; “freedom as responsibility”; if someone admits to their own actions; if someone does NOT claim responsibility -> NOT free Authoritarianism – a political system that denies the people participation in the government Two Types of Authoritarianism o Non-Totalitarian - dictatorship o Totalitarian – leader/government regiments and controls daily lives of population Totalitarianism – a political system that highly regulates people’s lives The Rise of Hitler in Germany – fasict, radical right, antidemocratic o The Enabling Act (1933) – gave Hitler unlimited power without Congress’ approval o The Night of the Long Knives (July 1934) – Hitler discovered that top supporters were turning against him; killed brown shirts leader Erst Rohm Conditions for Destruction of Democracy o Political Polarization o Humiliation and Perceived Weakness – not weak, but being treated otherwise (ex. Germany after WW1); threat to identity, machismoism, nationalism o Economic stress – economy falling apart/false reality that economy is falling apart o Consolidation of Power Three Definitions of Fascism o Michael Mann (sociologist) – pursuit of a transcendent and cleansing nation-statism through paramilitarism § Transcendence – fascist movements believe must go beyond where they are now; “we can do better and achieve more” § Cleansing (ethnic) – claim race is pure, so if you’re di9erent, need to get rid of (genocide, deportation, locking away)  §Cleansing (political) – getting rid of opposition by claiming government is corrupt; all new men to “clean”; putting loyalists in powerful positions and expunging opposition § Statism – idea that fascists love the government only if government is doing what they want them to do § Nationalism – hyper-nationalism; the country is superior § Paramilitarism – non-government armies (ex. Nazi Party Brownshirts) o Robert Paxton (historian) § Humiliation is classic for starting fascism § Religious elements (cults); belief that we are pure § Support from mainstream political party (conservative) § Redemptive violence; moral obligation feels necessary § Cleansing/expansion is common (ex. Hitler invading countries for living space) o Umberto Eco (author) § The rejection of modernism/embrace of irrationalism ~ embracing new tech/ideas § The cult of action for action’s sake – better to do now and think later than vice versa § Followers must feel humiliated § Contempt for the week/”popular elitism” – fascists hate weak people (physical/psychological) § Everyone is educated to become a hero/cult of heroism – be the hero/be a servant to the cause § Machismo – masculinity/masculine virtues embraced; feminine virtues considered weak § Fascism speaks “newspeak” – government communicating in a way that confuses the people, so they can’t understand what is truly going on; makes easy to manipulate people Economic Sociology Three Types of Economy o Market-based – supply and demand determine what is produced (capitalism) o Command-based – central authority determines what is produced (communism) o Culture-based – norms of a group dictate what is produced (hunter + gatherer societies) Three Sectors of Economy o Primary – extracting raw materials from environment (ex. mining, oil drilling, lumberjack) o Secondary – manufacturing (ex. turning silver from mine into jewelry) o Tertiary – services + information Changes from Industrial -> Post-Industrial o Tangible goods -> ideas o Mechanical skills -> literary skills o Factories -> almost anywhere Deindustrialization – decline of manufacturing  Reindustrialization – belief that government must implement laws/policies to reestablish parts of industrial era (ex. rebuilding factories) to prevent dependence on other countries Five Consequences of Global Economy o Global Division of Labor – countries are primary in one sector o International Production and Distribution – ex. automobile engine made in Japan, tires made in Thailand, navigation in Florida, etc. o National Governments do NOT Control Economic Activity – many types of currencies; BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) – group planning to take over U.S. economy o Small # of Companies Dominate - ~2,000 companies control ½ of world’s economy (ex. Amazon) o Human Rights – conditions of workers Traditional Capitalism – open-market, selling for money; based on emotion/not disciplined (ex. kid selling lemonade) Modern/Rational Capitalism – calculated, not emotional; looking ahead and disciplined (ex. Wall Street) Three Features of Modern Capitalism o Private ownership of property o Pursuit of personal profit o Competition + consumer choice Three Types of Capitalism o Laissez-Faire Capitalism – state is NOT involved at all in regulating, controlling, or owning economic entities o Welfare Capitalism – state provides for social welfare, health, and education needs of its citizens o State Capitalism – state is involved in regulating, controlling, or owning economic entities Three Meanings of Socialism o Marxist (radical left) – capitalism leads to socialism which leads to communism; believed workers will overthrow capitalism and take control of government and economy, but not long after, after the “state withers away”, will turn to communism o Social Democrats – welfare and state capitalism (ex. Bernie Sanders, AOC) o National Socialism (radical right) – nationalism/fascism; capitalist economy controlled by ruling party (ex. Nazi Party) Characteristics of Socialism (Marxist) – command economy, communism o Collective ownership of property o Pursuit of collective goals o Government control of economy Consumption - buying and consuming stu9 Consumerism – form of being Commodities – something that can be bought and sold (phone, house, couch) Commodification – historical process of turning things into commodities (ex. water, childbirth, rocks)  Commodity Fetish (Marx) – idea that people are distracted by consumerism, so blinded to economy on large scale Prosumption – fusion of production + consumption (ex. At McDonald’s, full your own cup- customer doing the work) Cathedrals of Consumption – ex. KOP, Disneyland, Tanger Outlets Conspicuous Consumption – buying things one can’t a9ord to convince others of a higher status Inconspicuous Consumption – when rich people choose to spend less than what their capable of (ex. buy Ford instead of Mercedes) Social Change Marx – viewed class conflict as root cause for social change Durkheim and Tonnies – both believes social change AFTER industrial revolution was due to lack of mechanical solidarity Weber – viewed ideas as root cause for social change Features of Social Change o Happens all the time o Often is unintentional o Often controversial o Some social change matters more than others Causes of Social Change o Culture o Conflict o Ideas o Demography Features of Modern Society o Urbanization o Industrialization o Rationalization Traditional Societies Modern Societies Post-Industrial (pre-1600s) (1700-1985) Societies (1985-now) Self Embedded Disembedded Heavily Disembedded (didn’t question future; (nothing is fully religion, job, family, etc. embedded; self can stitched in) conform to society standards) Reiman – The Lonely Tradition-Oriented Self Other Directed Self ? Crowd Mechanisms of Self Shame (socially- Guilt (fundamentally Both Shame (social Regulation oriented; not feeling up individualistic; “I’m not media) AND Guilt to standards) doing what a good person should do”)  Types of Identity Social Personal All in play (social, Personal – biographical; personal, and unique to person situational) Situated – role-based Social – community- a9iliated (ex. Black, Jewish, Catholic, etc.) Collective Behaviors – large # of people involved in unplanned, often controversial, sometimes dangerous, behaviors to promote social change Types of Crowds o Casual – ex. people at beach o Conventional – ex. people at college class o Expressive – ex. Times Square on NYE/rock concert o Acting – crowd doing something (ex. hear gunshot, crowd RUNS) Theories of Crowd Behaviors o Contagion Theory (Le Bon) – surrender rational actions; explains riot behaviors (contagious behaviors of crowd) o Convergence Theory – people are rational actors coming together for rational reasons o Emergent Norm Theory – Symbolic Interactionism; life is emergent, constantly producing and developing norms Social Movements – an organized and sustained (lasts longer than a couple months; years) e9ort to change all or part of a society using extralegal (on cusp of illegal; gray areas) means (ex. BLM, Women’s Rights, Gay Rights) Types of Social Movements o Alternative – aims to change individuals partially (ex. AA/self-help groups) o Redemptive – aims to change individuals totally (ex. cults) o Reformative – aims to change society partially (civil rights movement; mainstream environmental movements) o Revolutionary – aims to change society totally; USUALLY political revolutions (ex. American Revolution, French Revolution) Theories of Social Movements o Relative Deprivation Theory – movements often happen when reality isn’t keeping up with expectations (ex. thinking to get a raise next year, when really not); gap between now and ideal reality o Mass Society Theory – modern industrial urban societies creates individualism, which creates loss of meaning o Structural Strain Theory – functionalism; di9erence between “is” and “ought” Three Necessary Conditions for Social Movements o Resources (material or nonmaterial) o Political opportunities  o Ideology - population able to recognize problem AND population believes they can do something about it New Social Movements – a theory and organization of movements Tactics – short-range objectives/activities (ex. march on street to protest) o Violent Tactics – ex. blowing up buildings o Non-violent Tactics – sit-ins Tactical Repertoire – list of tactics (marches, sit-ins, burning buildings, bombs, etc.) Tactical Innovation – employing di9erent tactics at di9erent times (ex. Civil Rights Movement: bus boycotts, restaurant sit-ins, interstate travel protests, etc.) Strategies – long-range goals (ex. law passed/change made) SMO – Social Movement Organization; independent organization actively working toward specific social change goal (ex. environmental group) SMI – Social Movement Industry; a group of SMOs all focused on same social issue (ex. environmental movement industry) SMS – Social Movement Sector; entire landscape of social movements within a society Tocqueville Worried minority may conform to belief that majority’s morals are correct Mild/Soft Despotism – if government gets established/bureaucratic, people may give up democratic values; bureaucracy takes over Stewart – The Birth of a New Aristocracy Marx – The Communist Manifesto Thoreau – Civil Disobedience **Test Review** EC Thoreau – connect essay to meaning of democracy, equality, liberty, etc. Stewart – argues that in the last 30 years, the top 10% in America have become entrenched and is becoming more of an aristocracy; top 10% marry one another, go to same schools, etc.; contradicts open-mobility Marx – understand bourgeoisie (upper class) and proletariat (working class); argues if you want to understand society, must look at economy