Sociology 1020 PDF

Lecture 1 - The social world, society, works in patterns, and can be predicted; however nothing certainly happens The sociological imagination - A way of thinking that connects personal troubles with broad social issues - Analyze people's issues, like depression etc, and comparin...

Lecture 1 - The social world, society, works in patterns, and can be predicted; however nothing certainly happens The sociological imagination - A way of thinking that connects personal troubles with broad social issues - Analyze people's issues, like depression etc, and comparing how their issue relates to the social world - Ability to perceive societal causes of individual issues and experiences; the ability to think outside the accepted wisdom Science and technology/its connection to sociology - Fundamental to how society works - Alters our behavior - People constantly connected with one another - Technological advances can completely alter the world (eg, the internet) - Systematic study of the physical and natural world through observation and experimentation - Objects developed to serve a particular purpose - Makes humans more efficient and effective - Significant technological changes makes us organize entire societies Norms - Shared expectations/ rules/ guidelines within a society - How people should act in a particular situation - What people consider acceptable - Depends on the environment - Social pressures may bring people into the norm - Norms can change, and may vary from geographical location Values - Deeply shared/ held beliefs/ ideals - Shared understanding of what a group deems good, or desirable - For example, equality, freedom etc Society - A group of people that occupy a particular area - They feel that they represent one entity, political, etc - They share things with one another, like values and norms Social structure - Enduring and predictable patterns of social relations among people in society - Constraints and shapes people's behaviors - For example, the economy, family, education, government, etc Constraining power - When people's actions are constrained due to the situation at hand - The ability of a social institution to control people's behavior and increase their obedience to social norms - Eg, police, education, peer groups, money, gender roles Social institutions - A social structure governed by established or standardizing patterns of rule-governed behavior - Eg, family, religion, education, political etc Social relationship - A pattern of ongoing communication between two or more people - Follows an expected pattern Transformative power - The tendency for social institutions/ experiences to change people's routine behavior - Rapd transformation - Changes the norms of society Dyad - Two person set who communicate with people - Triad Social network: Structure made up of multiple individuals/ organizations, or other social interactions Status - Relative rank that someone holds within a society - A person's place within a social hierarchy - People seek higher status - Based on honor, prestige Role - Set of connected behaviors, rights, beliefs, norms, as conceptualized by people in a particular social situation  - How someone is expected to act to fit in - Those who don't follow their role don’t follow the norms - Guided by social expectations, but dynamic - Eg, gender roles, workplace roles, sports, etc Interaction - A pattern, an exchange of information between two or more people - Some sort of communication Knowing what we know - The goal is to propose and examine theory Research process: - Develop new concepts - Measure relationships between them - Develop plausible new explanation of the observed relations - Make new hypotheses - Collect new data, etc Quantitative/ Qualitative research Quantitative = Concerned with discovering facts about social phenomena, usually through statistical analysis. Discovering facts. MANY observations. Qualitative = Concerned with understanding and explaining human behavior. Measured through observation, interaction or interview. Smaller scale. Canons of sociology (paradigms) Conflict theory (Karl Marx, Max Weber) - Society evolves through class conflict - Classes fight over power, causes society to evolve - One group has more power than the other Functionalist theory - Society is made up of different parts, all of which society needs to operate - Institutions act like the ‘organs’ of society - These institutions have functions, eg, education trains workers to keep the economy going, etc  - Social problems arise when certain social systems don't function properly, a dysfunction Symbolic interactionism - Focuses on how people interact with one another - Analyzes how people use symbols - People construct reality through symbols - Culture is fluid, changes Feminist theory - Focuses on gender equality, the relationships between men and women - Women's lives differ from mens - Men/ the patriarchy have shaped womens behavior - Intersectionality: intersections of multiple forms of oppression Postmodernism - Denies the universal statements about world groups - Analyzes motives behind these statements - Analyzes consequences of people believing statements - You cannot understand society through a single lens - We have to understand the motives behind the world, across multiple societies Decolonization and sociology - Undoing/ unlearning/ challenging the effects of colonialism and its ideas - Settler colonialism in particular has ongoing effects on certain peoples - About changing the structures of sociology, as they are Western, Eurocentric Skills gained from studying sociology - Research skills - Cross cultural understanding - Problem solving, critical thinking - Communication, reading and writing - Recognition of trends/ patterns 09/26 Lecture 2: Measuring the Real World Sociologically - The process of research - Theoretical approaches to methods - Methods of social research - Ethics of conductive research Bias: Errors in how we draw conclusions based on observations that may lead to inaccurate knowledge - Research process bypasses ‘common sense’ and avoids bias - Reducing massive amounts of information to compact theories - Systematic process before one can make claims about trends and patterns 5 Main goals in sociological research 1. Enumeration and description: Quantify something and describe 2. Predict: Mostly done through stat analysis 3. Explanation 4. Dubunking: Fake news, ‘common sense ideas’ not based on empirical reality 5. Social Justice: Focus on the needs of diverse people Enumeration/ description - Gathering large scale information about society - Basic characteristics of society Prediction - Trying to estimate outcomes - From gathering data, based on statistics - Estimating - Knowing what numbers represent - Predict with a certain level of confidence Explanation - Create theories about the world, not influence it - How and why something happens - Qualitative by nature - Develop theory of how society works Debunking - How myths, beliefs, ‘common sense’ is wrong about something - People have low ability to analyze information in front of them - Quick to believe certain sources of media Social justice - Understanding lives of marginalized groups - Engaging in work that can achieve social change for the better - Highlighting how power operates in society, how certain groups are affected Formulating a research problem - Clarity: Research question that is easy to understand - Eg “how do people feel about exercise” is unclear, because it is extremely general, different exercises, what groups of people? What location? What does feel mean? Too broad. - Eg, “how do women aged 18-25 in urban areas perceive the mental health benefits of regular yoga practice” very clear - Specificity: Specific formulation of research question evading vagueness - Eg “what are the effects of social media on people” is not specific enough, what effects? Etc - Better; “How does instagram use impact body satisfaction among teenage girls aged 13-15 in Canada” Very clear, specific - Feasibility: Is a question answerable, doable within reason - Bad: “how is every culture group in the world been affected by globalization in the past 500 years” too big, too broad, impossible to collect data, research would be expensive - Good: “How has globalization affected the cultural practices in indigenous communities within canada in the past 20 years” Answerable Literature Review - Before engaging in analysis, look to what other people have said - Scholarly sources, what other sociologists/ experts have said on topic - Relates to your research question - Involves searching for material, evaluating sources - Differences between pieces of material, minor and major - Analyze and synthesize what's been said, discover gaps Research design - Sets have blueprints to answer question - Defines study type  - Hypotheses - Specific variables - Outline data collecting techniques - Data analysis plan - Justifying decisions you make as a researcher, why you choose a particular study, method of data collection 1. Identify problem 2. Literature review 3. Questions for hypotheses 4. Data collection 5. Data Analysis Collecting and analyzing data Quantitative - Surveys - Experimental - Questionnaires - Involves large-scale data collection - Interview data can sometimes be turners into numerical data - Generalizable claims are made - Generalize populations according to a sample - Relies on numerical data Qualitative - Not generalizable - Relying on different kinds of data, narratives, NOT NUMERICAL - Ethnographic - Researcher is ‘active participant’ - Interviews - Participant observation - Very rich understanding of people's experience Quantitative methods - Rely on numerical values - Statistical modeling - Mathematical formulas and algorithms Collecting/ analyzing data - Reliability - Describes extent to which findings can be replicated, consistent across comparable situations - Eg, bathroom scale, is not accurate you weigh a different thing, is reliable but not valid - Validity - Concept or idea or measurement represents real world in accurate way - Eg, bathroom scale, is accurate everytime - Eg: if a test measures intelligence uses reading ability, is not valid because it's not enough to measure intelligence - Ideally, our measurements/ statistics are both valid and reliable Qualitative methods - Trying to understand the social world through analyzing data gained from very specific things - Ethnography: immerse yourself with the group you are studying - Participant observation: just observing the group you are studying - INterviews: Interviewing the group - Discourse or content analysis: Research done on secondary material, like a magazine - Focus group: Interview multiple people at once - Narrative analysis - Visual Ethnography Qualitative methods equivalent of reliability and validity for quantitative Saturation - No new themes are emerging from data - Eg, After several interviews, nobody says something new, you reach a point of saturation Triangulation - Multiple methods to hone in on data - Getting multiple viewpoints to answer a research question Mixed methods - Using a combo of methods Write up, communicate, critical reflection - Peer review work before it is presented - Doing things other than peered review work, looking at media etc Conflict theory - Always about understanding inequalities and conflict among groups - Critical reflection - Quantitative and qualitative used Feminism - Develops methodology focused on gender inequalities, intersectionality - Standpoint theory: Methodology to understand how different standpoints in the world influence your worldview - Qualitative focused, ethnography, interview, discourse analysis Structural functionalism - Exclusively quantitative - Makes generalizations, the theory is a broad theory about how society works Symbolic interactionism - Specific nuances between interactions - Very Qualitative - Very specific, micro-sociological trends - How people get meaning, language, different ways of talking - Close readings, ethnography, etc Survey research - Gather systematic information on a topic to describe specific social phenomenon - Do surveys to get data - Describes trends, causation, relationships - Very tedious, costly, doesn't happen too much - POPULATION: comprised of the complete groups of units to which results are generalizes - If you are asked to do a survey, you are the SAMPLE - Eg, university is a population, you are asked to do a survey, you are a sample - Different types of surveys - Sampling Interviews - Conversations with a specific person - Illuminates characteristics at the micro level - Unstructured interview: no guide, - Semi Structured: Field Research - Research done outside lab - In the ‘field’ going to a place to do the research among the group you are researching - Participant observation: Observes an individual, group, or community - Become familiar from the ‘natural habitat’ Ethnography - Immersing yourself with the group you are researching - Eg, participating in a marathon, while talking to participants - Don't violate ethical issues Participatory action research - Communities become active participants in your research - The group help create questions to make sure you don't do anything problematic - Give them drafts, let them become co-authors - Photovoice: Looking at photos, videos, good for analysis of social media - Cameras let participants take control Secondary data analysis - Mass media analysis - A representation of a group - Analyzing quantitative data - Observations of what people reported, second hand observation Ethics of conducting research - Bad example; Stanford prison experiment; went horribly wrong, was NOT ethical - Make sure research does not cause harm - People being given diseases is not ethical - NEVER CAUSE HARM - Minimize physical and psychological harm - Sometimes out of control, but you have to try absolute best - Eg, if you ask questions about someone's trauma, or sensitive topic, be prepared to handle it a certain way  - Informed consent: getting permission in all respects before involving a participant - They must understand all the risk, and consent - Participant must be fully informed on what they are doing - Certain groups cant consent, eg someone who is very young - Ensure respect towards specific groups who are systematically oppressed, asking responsible questions, not ‘extracting’ Research ethics board - Mandated in Canada - Determines rules for ethical research - Pass info to ethics boards in universities - All studies must go to REB to get a pass to do the research Conclusion - Variety of research methods, mainly quantitative, qualitative - Different approaches have strengths and weaknesses 10/03 Lecture #3 Key concepts - Culture - Cultural Universals - Cultural Relativism Culture - Language most common form of culture - Emcompasses tradition, art, social norms - Shape how we interact with one another - How we express ourselves, how we form our world view - Is passed down from generations - Evolves over time - Helps people understand their own identity - Varies from different places, different cultures How do cultures interact? Conflict? How do they relate? Material Culture - Physical items - Eg, tools, technology, art, buildings etc - An expression of human creativity, practical and symbolic Immaterial culture - Not material - Eg, beliefs, values, norms, customs, traditions, symbols - Symbols can take a material form - History, literature - Shapes human experience Cultural Universal - Element, pattern, institution common to all human cultures world-wide - Systems may be different, but appear in some form - Some technology - Conflict/ competition Ethnocentrism  - People tend to think their own culture is the norm, different cultures seem strange - Something is different, therefore it is abnormal - Ethnocentrism can be taught, imbedded in society - A bias that is introduced - Evaluating a culture through your own Cultural Relativism - Willingness to understand different cultures that are different to one's own - Understanding our way of life is not necessarily the cornerstone for all cultures of the world Theoretical Approaches to Culture Conflict Theory - People in power try to manipulate culture, influence ideas values, confidence in social institutions - Dominant groups maintain power through this - Cultural elements such as norms, etc, reflect the interest of powerful groups - Reinforces existing power structures, marginalizing lesser groups, creating separation - ‘The american dream’~work hard, do your best, it is the only way to get success (technically a form of dominant ideology) - Creates an efficient working class - “False consciousness”, we all accept it even if it doesn't work Who are you working for? Who is taking advantage of you? Keeping you poor? Feminist Theory - Argues that gender inequality is the main drive on conflict - Gender socialization: We are programmed to believe that there are roles assigned to sexes - Culture shapes and is shaped by gender relations - Gender inequality is almost universal, entrenched in culture - Patriarchy; historically men have been the most powerful - A structuring form in society - Critiques patriarchy: Cultural elements serve to maintain patriarchal systems - Eg, media, culture - Women portrayed a certain way in media Functionalism - Society is like a system of organs; works together as one, everything needs the other - Dominant systems, culture etc - Dysfunction causes social problems - We cannot operate as a society if certain systems are removed - Eg, taking out currency would be bad - How and why society remains the same from one day to the next - Cultural change and uncertainty creates social disorganization and strain, leads to deviance and crime Symbolic Interactionism - Micro level, face to face interaction, between individuals, and symbols - Culture comes from face to face interactions - Culture is a dictionary of words, actions symbols - Symbols can interact, and create a whole new meaning - Connects us - Emphasizes that culture is created, maintained, and modified through social interaction Culture and Language - How we interact and communicate with each other - Language is most general form of culture - Abstract system of sound, signs, gestures, that express things - Language is not static, constantly evolving - Has different and unintended meanings - Causes problems in culture, culture divides and differences, language can mean different things in different cultures - Signs are gestures, artifacts, or words that express something other than themselves Patterns of Cultural Variation (patterns of cultural organization) High culture: “High brow, fine tastes” emphasizes or reflects higher social status/ class - Eg, fine arts, classy stuff, things that are more refined - Excludes more than it includes - Exclusionary - A status symbol Popular culture/ mass culture: Culture of ordinary people; the masses - Eg, everyone knows and likes a certain celebrity, popular anything is a product of mass culture Subculture: Shares cultural elements of a larger society, but has their own distinctive values, beliefs, norms, style, behavior patterns. - Eg, goths, jocks, Counter culture: A subculture that rejects conventional values/ norms - Eg, anarchists, hippies, - Reject the ideas of the time Organizational culture: Refers to values, norms patterns that characterize relationships within a formal organization. - Understanding behavior patterns to make a good culture Cultural Capital - The capital that you accumulate via gaining knowledge, skills, that help you get ahead socially - Skills you develop, you gain something from them, and you get something socially from them - Can be translated in to social, and economic capital Cultural Literacy - Things you NEED to know to sound educated in your particular society - Etiquette - We all behave a particular way outside, that would not be good inside the workplace - Particular cultural norms within different settings Cultural values - Influence people's behavior in every domain of life - Influences values in different domains, eg, the economy - Eg, Changes in religious beliefs contributed to the development of capitalism~”The spirit of capitalism and the protestant work ethic” Weber's link - Shows that social and economic development connect to cultural change - Culture is not static, nor always hindrance to change Cultural integration - Process that fits together parts of culture so that they compliment each other - Through different forms of media - Connects everything associated with culture - Culture exists outside individuals, but without culture there is no individual - Influences all our beliefs, actions, etc - Flows back into culture, and how it interacts with other spheres of life - Culture is the most dominant institution in society 10/10 Lecture #4: Making infants into social beings through Socialization > Socialization process > Theoretical approaches > The self, identity/ social roles > Agents of socialization Socialization - Social learning someone undergoes to become a part of society - Individuals learn to internalize norms/ values/ skill appropriate to culture / society - Done through interaction, internalization to norms, social pressures - Helps people integrate, and contribute to society Process - Micro/ macro levels of socialization Micro: Face to face interaction/ small groups Maro: Large scale social processes Primary socialization - Early childhood - Family - Teaches norms/ skills  - Manners, language - Gender roles - Emotional regulation - Hygiene - Simplistic moral values Secondary socialization - Later in life - Individuals engage in other institutions - School, work, peer groups, etc - Bosses, friends, teachers, spiritual leaders have bigger influence later on in life - Acquisition of knowledge/ skills needed to participate within smaller groups of society - Education Anticipatory socialization - Associated with process of preparing for new social role in society - Learning sets of behaviors, responsibilities, norms associated with a particular role - Preparing to become part of a particular role - Eg, preparing for post-secondary, university as training for becoming part of workforce Resocialization - Unlearning old behaviors, to adopt new ones - Eg, military, rehabilitation programs, prison, cult Socialization over life course - Different life stages associated with stages of socialization Life course theory: Study of people's lives, structural contexts, social change. Study people's lives as they progress through life/ age. - Agents of socialization; people and institutions Theoretical approaches to socialization Structural functionalism - Institutions maintain norms/ values of society - Transmission of norms/ values happens through socialization - Socialization keeps social stability, institutions reform over time - Without socialization, no norms, values, becomes chaos  - How do we keep going? - Helps us understand norms and values through context Conflict theory - How does society develop through conflict, power relations - Socialization trains people to be exploited (work force) - Experiences vary from position in social hierarchy - Social mobility; our ability to move from one social strata to another - Ability to individuals/groups to move up and down social hierarchy - Reflects how society improves or worsens social positions of people - Inter/Intragenerationally Intra; within your own life Inter; in your generation - Vertical mobility Feminist theory - How socialization affects gender roles - Parents often demonstrate division of labor - Goal is to create awareness of gender roles, and question them, be critical, how they affect people Symbolic interactionism - How we construct our identities through interaction - Self concept, idea of the self, constructed from beliefs/ response to others - We are influenced by how people respond to us - Identity: - Qualities, beliefs, expression etc, that make up a person/ group - Not static, fluid concept The looking glass self - Charles Cooley - Explains how individuals develop perception of self, through how other people view them - Image of oneself shaped off the responses we get from other people - How they predict other will respond to them, how others will perceive them 1) We consider how others will see us 2) Analyze how others react to our behavior 3) We develop a self concept around the judgment of others - We are socialized through the the judgment of others, or perceived judgment The self/ theories of social identity and social roles The self 1) The actual self, personal characteristics 2) Attributes one aspires to have, how they want to be perceived by others 3) Ought to be self, attributes one believes they should possess - Lewis Coser: argued that individuals have multiple selves that are expressed in different social contexts - Goffman: Impression management. How a person manages the impressions to influence how others perceive their identity, presentation of the self - Eg, Conforming to situational norms, behavior matching, self-promotion Social identity theory - Explains how individuals identify themselves based on group membership - How their identities influence them - Self concept Social role theory - Examines how individuals fulfill roles in their lives - How roles influence interaction - Role conflict - Macro: looks at larger social system, the roles that are reinforced through systems - Micro: Individuals influence social roles Role conflict - Clashing requirements - People have to fulfill two roles, creates conflict Agents of socialization - People, groups, institutions that form a social interaction where socialization happen Home and the family - Primary for socialization in early life mainly - Reverse socialization: children socialize their parents, parents adjust to fit needs of child - Reciprocal process: when children and parent socialize each other School - Teaches new skills, norms, manners, values of society College/ university - Readies you for the workforce - Become engaged citizens - Upward social mobility: better opportunity in the future Workplace - Professionalism - Attendance Peers - Influential, how we act Mass media - Media reflects behavioral patterns of people - Shapes the way we see ourselves Lecture #5: Families, age groups, and social patterns close to home 10/24 > Defining the family (how sociologist approach it) > Theoretical perspectives on the family > Changes to families in the 21st century Family - Any social unit/ set of social relations that does what families are imagined to do - A social institutions that serves multiple functions and individuals - Definition varies across cultures and over time; a range of relationships and structures - One of longest standing institutions - Family norms dynamic in nature Kin group - Refers to a network of connected people by blood, marriage, adoption - See themselves as related and engage in mutual obligations - Kin groups studied to understand how society organizes relationships - Sharing resources, labor, property - Norms, values, practices shared - Caregiving - Facilitate social ties/ alliances between families - Inheritance and succession (needed for capitalist society) - Capitalism changed family dynamic (transfer of inheritance, property) Census family - A statistical measurement family, standardized definition of family used by agencies, eg stats canada - Used to collect/ analyze data - Includes two spouses (live together for more than a year) with or without children Family types Nuclear family - Usually consists of a father, mother and children - Parents married or cohabiting with biological or adopted family - Typically at least 2 children Single parent family - One parent taking care of child(s) - Divorced parent, deceased parent - Often deal with financial stressors Extended families - Extends beyond nuclear family - Includes, aunts, uncles, grandparents, maintaining close relations - Living under the same roof - Common in non-western societies Blended family - Formed when one or more partners bring children from previous relationships into a new union - Two separate family structures merge to create one - Often result of re-marrying Common law couple - Non married, with or without children - Becoming more common in Canada/ USA - Divorce rate increase post WW2, but dropping steadily now because fewer people are getting married Same sex couple - A growing trend since the 60s - General public acceptance, legal changes Cohabitation - Unmarried people living together in a long-term basis - Popular amongst young people - Marriage was understood as a religious thing, less religious people means less marriage - Various governments create common-law partnership laws - In Canada, living together 1+ years means you are a common law marriage Theoretical perspectives on family Conflict theory - Family is a social institution shaped by inequalities - Family perpetuates social and economic issues across generations - Family is a site of inequality and power structures  - Power dynamic between parents and children - Over representation of domestic work among women - “Socially reproduced roles” - Wealth, property, and privilege passed down, inequalities are passed down - Best predictor of success for a child is wealth of parents - Exploitation of domestic labor, often done by women (example of social reproduction) - Family as an ideological tool; socializes people into power structures, gender roles, conforming to authority that favors certain people - Views industrialization as a fundamental transition; family is no longer self sustaining, but only consumption - Has to go buy things as a result of industrialization/ capitalism - Family dependant on sources of income outside of household to meet survival needs - A tool for capitalism Functionalism - Family is a central institution in society, contributes to stability and functioning of society - Functionalism supports things that keep social stability alive - Performs essential functions - Socialization - Ensures continuity of society - A building block of society itself - Regulates sexual behavior and reproduction - Provides economic support - Sharing of resources, labor - Emotional support - Care, companionship, nurture - Gender division of labor is functional, a good thing, people better suited for certain tasks - Eg, women doing domestic behavior, men going into the workforce - Same-sex couples are not efficient, a threat to social stability - Reinforces conservative understanding of family Symbolic interactionism - How family members interact with one another - Family is a socially constructed institution - Focus on how family members create meaning through everyday interactions  - Not a fixed structure, dynamic system where roles, identities are shaped over time - Family is a site of meaning making - Eg, “mom”, “dad”. A symbol of authority - Rituals, eg family dinners - Roles within a family - How communication shapes family relationships - Understanding family identity as a whole; eg why are some so close to their family, or the opposite - Social constructionist - Looks at micro interactions, then making a claim at a larger scale - Might say that there is no such thing as a “family”, it is man-made (a claim made by looking at research done by symbolic interactionist) Feminist theory - A lot like conflict theory - Family is seen as a site of oppression, empowerment - Social issues reproduces into society - Patriarchy - How can the family be re-emagined to promote equality? - Family based on patriarchy; society is defined by patriarchy - Division of labor in a household allows for division of labor to be made in the workforce - Emotional labor - Career interruptions inevitable with a traditional understanding of a family (maternity leave) - ‘Glass ceiling’ keeps a particular demographic (women) from rising in the social hierarchy Changes to family in 21st century Family forms - No longer exclusively nuclear - Single parents, blended families, etc - Same-sex - Standard of living increases, families shrink, decreased fertility rates - More income = less children - Industrialization leads to urbanization, population shift from rural to cities Families and housework - Women essential to economic production  - Eg, settler colonial history - Social issues traced back to rise of urban society - Women still do more housework, but men more likely to do housework today Families and socialization - Families, peer groups, religion, primary targets of socialization in all societies - Technology affects families - Since end of WW2, TV is an agent of socialization; other technologies would emerge, eg smartphone - Internet; it is not regulated Lecture #6: Social stratification and economic inequality 11/07 Class as a structuring force - Class is fundamental to how we structure society (capitalist mainly) - Proletariat: Exchanges labor for wages. They are at the mercy of the bourgeoisie - Owns no means of production - Accesses means of production by being hired - Bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of production, hires people and pays those people, sells to the market - Class conflict results in structuring of hierarchies based on social class Class - Refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals/ groups in society - Based primarily on economic, social, cultural factors - People characterized based on resources, and power - Lower, middle, upper classes Class system - Hierarchical classification, based on factors such as wealth, income, education - Determines access to resources and opportunity - Meritocracy on works with a class system; drives people to work hard - It is very difficult to move up the class system  - Upward mobility Social Stratification - System of inequality that integrates class, status, ability, education level, etc - Eg, upper classes (top %) have most of the money Theoretical approaches Structural functionalism - We need inequality so that people have an insensitive to work harder, keeps social stability - Improves efficiency and productivity - Reward system pushes people to work Conflict theory - Class inequality is bad, all societies problems come from economic inequality - Only serves the dominant group Feminism - Inequality highlights how class intersects with class - Social hierarchies reinforced to continue oppression - How do social institutions treat men and women differently? - Class inequality leads to conflict, benefits primarily he dominant groups - Linked with conflict theory Symbolic interactionism - How do people identify with a social class - Signs and symbols associated with their class - Symbols, interactions, meanings attached to social class - Interested in social class as self-concept, a social identity that influences self esteem, self image - People develop distinct values, behaviors associated with their specific class - How do people showcase wealth/ status? - Culture capital influences social mobility, status, power Social mobility - Secondary labor market: sectors in the economy that are low paying, precarious, difficult to advance, ‘low-skill’. People don't want to be in it - Primary labor market: Industries that provide stable higher pay, better benefits Poverty - Absolute poverty - Not having enough income to meet basic survival needs - Food, water, shelter - Relative poverty - More common in western society - Has access to basic survival needs - Living below the general standards (which moves over time) Low income cut-off (LICO) - Identifies income thresholds below which a family will likely spend a larger proportion of its income Market basket measure (MBM) - Defines and tracks the poverty line - Food, clothing, footwear, shelter, transportation, care products - ‘Basket’ of necessities; calculating if you can afford it - Varies on household size, income Low income measure (LIM) Gini coefficient - Globally used - Measures inequality in distribution of income among household Lecture #7: Understanding global inequality Defining and measuring global inequality - Richest live in north, while poorest live in south - Global north: Includes North America, and Europe; richer countries and more politically stable - Global south: includes Latin America, Asia, Africa, Oceania; poorer, politically/ culturally marginalized Human development index - Statistical tool used to measure/ rank countries social/ economic development 1. Life expectancy; longevity and health measured from birth 2. Human capital; measure of formal education/ knowledge 3. Standard of living; measured through GDP Globalization and its relation to global inequality - Globalization: - Process of increased international influence via economic, cultural, ideological or technological means - Results in; - Global north building on existing advantages - Global north increases power through exploitation of global south Tech, politics, and global inequality - Innovation - People/ corporations develop technologies via research and development - Global civil society - Large scale international groups - Operates across borders/ outside control of state - The state - Refers to a nation/ territory under control of a government - Neoliberalism - Philosophy that prefers “free markets” - State has little power and control in intervening with the economy, or political ideologies associated with it - Neocolonialism - Global north societies that historically controlled large portions of the world that continue to dominate production of goods, language, and culture - Multinational corporations  - Large companies with headquarters in global north that sell goods/ services across the globe - Eg, pepsico, Amazon Theoretical approaches to global inequality Modernity: - An era in western Europe beginning roughly at end of medieval age (1500) - Associated with increase of rationalism, individualism, secularism, democracy and capitalism Functionalist theory - Societies evolve and prosper via increased differentiation and cooperation - At centre of this process is a “market force” - Global inequality is a result of uneven economic development - Certain societies are more able to seize economic and technological opportunities Conflict theory - Global inequality is a result of dependency/ imperialist economic domination from certain states/ organizations - Perspectives under conflict theory - Dependency theory (Andre Gunder Frank) - Resources flow from periphery states to core states - Historical colonialism plays a key role in exploitation of economies/ peoples - NICs (newly industrialized countries): - Analysis of global cities (Saskia Sassen - Global city: city with significant influence/ impact in global affairs, eg, New York - World systems theory (Immanuel Wallerstein) - Refers to transnational division of labour which divides the world into core, periphery, and semi periphery states - Core states: Powerful states (industrialized, wealthy) that can control/ manipulate semi peripheral and peripheral states - Peripheral states: Low income, less able to exert political influence - Semi-peripheral states: Has some power and influence, semi industrialized, middle income Feminist theory - Global inequality influences gender relations, including gradual growth of family and gender norms prevalent in the south - Global inequality allows for exploitation of certain peoples across borders Symbolic interactionism - Global inequality requires the construction of multinational or globalized entities, and promotes some degree of cultural homogenization around shared ideas of geography - Focus on social construction of legitimizing ideas/ structures Role of state in global inequality - States regulate development and spread of technology - Adoption of innovations increases a states economic productivity - Global networking can allow for global south countries to build on knowledge of global north for better infrastructure, etc Role of state in cultural globalization - Materialization hastens the spread of ideology - Knowledge translation: Knowledge, values/ culture of one culture adopted to fit that of a different culture Role of migration in global inequality - People carry technology, knowledge, values to places to move - Changes productive potential of societies - “Brain drain”: skilled people leave global south for better opportunity in the global north