socio chap 2.pdf

CHAPTER 2 ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS  LEARNING OBJECTIVES BASIC CONCEPTS Learn the steps of the research process. Name the different types of questions sociologists address in their research— factual, theoretical, comparative, and developmental. ASKING AND ANSWE...

CHAPTER 2 ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS  LEARNING OBJECTIVES BASIC CONCEPTS Learn the steps of the research process. Name the different types of questions sociologists address in their research— factual, theoretical, comparative, and developmental. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS: HISTORICAL CONTEXT Contrast Park’s and Ogburn’s visions of sociology as a science. Understand their influence on contemporary sociological research. 3 ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS Familiarize yourself with the methods available to sociological researchers, and recognize the advantages and disadvantages of each. 4 UNANSWERED QUESTIONS Understand how research methods generate controversies and ethical dilemmas for sociologists. BASIC CONCEPTS Sociological Research and Common Sense As you begin to think like a sociologist, you may notice that you have tapped into your observation skills. You might assume that your observations and insights are valuable and accurate. But the results of casual observation are limited by the fact that there is no standardization—who is to say one person’s observation of an event is any more accurate than another’s? To mediate these concerns, sociologists rely on systematic research processes. Sociological Research and Common Sense True or False: On average, men have a higher tolerance for both pain and temperature extremes than women do. On average, women tolerate pain, heat, and cold better than men do when physiological tests are performed. However, U.S. culture socializes men to be “tough” more than it does women–so women may often act wimpier! Sociological Research and Common Sense True or False: What do you know about only children? Culturally, our stereotype of children without siblings is that they grow up to be rather spoiled. We might think that the social skills of only children will not be as well developed as those of people who were reared with siblings. However, sociological research shows that children who grow up without siblings are no worse off than their counterparts with siblings when it comes to developing good social skills. Sociological Research and Common Sense True or False: Do Women talk more than men? Sociological Research and Common Sense True or False: Are working mums better parents with their children than non working mothers As measured by their divorce rate, couples who live together before marriage are usually more satisfied with their marriages than couples who did not live together before marriage. Sociological Research and Common Sense Sociologists and other scientists also move beyond common sense—the prevailing ideas in a society, the things that “everyone knows” are true. “Everyone” can be as misguided today as everyone was when common sense dictated that the world was flat or that no human could ever walk on the moon. As sociologists do their research, their findings may confirm or contradict commonsense notions about social life. What Is a Valid Sociological Topic? Sociologists do research on just about every area of human behavior. 1. On the macro level, they study such broad matters as race relations, the military, and the global economic crisis. 2. On the micro level, they study such individualistic matters how people interact on street corners, and even shyness. Sociologists study nuns and prostitutes, cops and criminals, as well as all kinds of people in between. Sociological Approach To Studying Social Life What does it mean to think sociologically? And; How does one go about applying this?’ Sociological Approach To Studying Social Life Sociological questions are questions that examine the social meaning or patterns of a phenomenon. The key here is that it has to be social - involving groups rather than individuals - and it has to address patterns or meanings. Let's take the example of AIDS. Here are three very interesting questions about AIDS: What treatments are effective in prolonging the lives of AIDS patients? Does having AIDS increase the likelihood a person will be depressed? Does treatment for HIV vary by social class and ethnicity? The first question is a medical question. The second is a medical and psychological question. Only the third is really a sociological question. Why? Only the third question looks at patterns among groups. Sociological Approach To Studying Social Life: Different Types Of Question Fall Into Various Categories Factual questions give us information about what, who and how. The text uses the example of crime statistics to illustrate the value of being well informed about the background to a topic or issue. The next step is to ask ‘How usual is this?’ – in other words, to ask comparative questions (Historical or horizontal) about the situation in other countries or in different types of system. Following this empirical and theoretical questions and the nature of their interrelationship need tone established. The ‘real world research’ often differs from ‘ideal-type’ approaches found in the textbooks. Sociological Approach To Studying Social Life: Different Types Of Question Fall Into Various Categories Before proceeding further, it is important to know sociological research as a scientific endeavor. In so far as it is, this is because of its (a) systematic method; (b) empirical investigation; (c) data analysis; (d) theoretical thinking; and (e) logical assessment of argument. Sociology Research (Quantitative) Or (Qualitative) That is the purpose of sociological research—to investigate and provide insights into how human societies function. Although claims and opinions are part of sociology, sociologists use research (that is, evidence corroborated by direct experience and/or observation) combined with the scientific method (Quantitative or Qualitative) (interpretive framework) to deliver sound sociological research.. Quantitative Research uses data that can easily be converted into numbers, such as a survey or an experiment. Qualitative Research involves data that cannot easily be converted to numbers, such as observation or informal interviews Sociology Research Inference, Generalization, Reliability And Validity Regardless of whether it is quantitative or qualitative, sociological research strives to be scientific. 1. Inference: By this we mean that when we reach a conclusion on the basis of evidence, reasoning and observations about a specific setting or group, but the goal is to be able to generalize beyond that specific entity to others of its kind. 2. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group. 3. Researchers also strive for validity, which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. Validity would ensure that the study’s design accurately examined what it was designed to study. Sociology Research The Uncertainty Principle: The Uncertainty Principle: The conclusions of all scientific research, including sociology, are uncertain. This might be surprising. Isn’t the purpose of studying the social world to be able to make forceful arguments about it? The values of science sometimes demand that we do the opposite. The scientific validity of inferences can be assessed only if researchers are clear about all the sources of their uncertainty. Sociologists need to specify all the possible sources of uncertainty in their study. Sociology Research Reflexivity It is important to highlight an important element that is emphasized more in the social sciences— particularly in qualitative research. This is called reflexivity. For social scientists, it is particularly important to acknowledge that the investigator is a crucial part of the world she studies and cannot necessarily divorce herself from it. This includes power dynamics among subjects and the ways in which personal values or personal identity influence both the nature of the questions asked and the interpretation of data. Social scientists must thus be ready to reflect on how the way they are part of the social scenes they study may affect the kinds of conclusions they draw. THE RESEARCH PROCESS THE RESEARCH PROCESS 1. Ask a Question (Define the problem) Ask a clear question, describe the problem, and identify the specific area of your interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geography and timeframe. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 1. Ask a Question (Define the problem) What is the relationship between a parent’s education level and the level of education accomplished by their children? What is the relationship between religious views and political beliefs? What is the relationship between divorce rates and the state of the economy? What is the relationship between family’s income and your grades? What is the relationship between age and musical preferences? Do men have an advantage in our modern society compared to women? Is a woman with a full-time job a better maternal figure? Do wealthier individuals have lower moral values? THE RESEARCH PROCESS 2. REVIEW THE LITERATURE Have previous researchers spotted the same puzzle? How have they tried to solve it? What aspects of the problem has their research left unanalyzed? Have they looked only at small segments of the population, such as one age group, gender, or region? Drawing on others’ ideas helps the sociologist clarify the relevant issues and the appropriate research methods. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3. MAKE THE PROBLEM PRECISE (Hypothesis) A third stage involves clearly formulating the research problem. If relevant literature already exists, the researcher may have a good idea of how to approach the problem. At this stage, hunches sometimes become hypotheses— educated guesses about what is going on. For the research to be effective, the researcher must formulate a hypothesis in such a way that the factual material gathered will provide evidence either supporting or disproving it. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3. MAKE THE PROBLEM PRECISE (Hypothesis) A Hypothesis is a tentative assumption. A statement that speculates the relationship between two or more variables. Variable - A trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. Types of Variables Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: action depends on the influence of the independent variable to affect its action THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3. MAKE THE PROBLEM PRECISE (Hypothesis) A Hypothesis is a tentative assumption: A statement that speculates the relationship between two or more variables. Variable - A trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. Types of Variables Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: action depends on the influence of the independent variable to affect its action THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3. MAKE THE PROBLEM PRECISE (Hypothesis) Independent Hypothesis Variable Dependent Variable The greater the availability of Affordable affordable housing, the Homeless Rate Housing lower the homeless rate. The greater the availability of math tutoring, the higher Math Tutoring Math Grades the math grades. The greater the police Police Patrol patrol presence, the safer Safer Neighborhood Presence the neighborhood. The greater the factory Factory lighting, the higher the Productivity Lighting productivity. The greater the amount of observation, the higher the Observation Public Awareness public awareness. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3. MAKE THE PROBLEM PRECISE (Hypothesis) - Operational Definitions A hypothesis predicts a relationship between or among variables, factors that change, or vary, from one person or situation to another. For example, the statement “Men who are more socially isolated are likelier to abuse their wives than men who are more socially integrated” is a hypothesis. Your hypothesis will need Operational Definitions—that is, precise ways to measure the variables. In this example, you would need operational definitions for three variables: social isolation, social integration, and spouse abuse THE RESEARCH PROCESS 4. WORK OUT A DESIGN The researcher then decides how to collect the research materials, choosing from a range of methods based on the study objectives as well as the aspects of behavior under study. For some purposes, a survey (usually involving questionnaires) might be suitable. In other circumstances, interviews or an observational study might be appropriate. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 4. WORK OUT A DESIGN and CARRY OUT THE RESEARCH Researchers then proceed to carry out the plan developed in step 4. However, during the actual research, unforeseen practical difficulties may arise that force the researcher to rethink his or her initial strategy. For example, it might prove impossible to contact certain questionnaire recipients or interview subjects. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 5. INTERPRET THE RESULTS Once the information has been gathered, the researcher’s work is not over— it is just beginning! The researcher must analyze the data, track trends, and test hypotheses. Most important, researchers must interpret their results in such a way that they tell a clear story and directly address the research puzzle outlined in step 1. Although it may be possible to reach clear answers to the initial questions, many investigations are ultimately not fully conclusive. THE RESEARCH PROCESS 6. REPORT THE FINDINGS The research report, usually published as a journal article or book, provides an account of the research question, methods, findings, and the implications of the findings for social theory, public policy, or practice. This stage is only final in terms of the individual project. Most reports identify unanswered questions and suggest new questions for further research. All individual research investigations are part of the continuing process of research within the sociological community. THE RESEARCH PROCESS REALITY INTRUDES! The preceding sequence of steps is a simplified version of what happens in actual research projects. These stages rarely succeed each other so neatly; the difference is like that between the recipes outlined in a cookbook and the actual process of preparing a meal. Experienced cooks often don’t work from recipes at all, yet they might cook better meals than those who do. Following fixed schemes can be unduly restricting; much outstanding sociological research would not fit rigidly into this sequence, though it would include most of the steps outlined here. THE RESEARCH PROCESS  CONCEPT CHECKS 1. Compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative research methods. 2. What are the seven steps of the research process? 3. What is a hypothesis? ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS: HISTORICAL CONTEXT ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS: HISTORICAL CONTEXT When sociology began as a discipline, it was a highly theoretical field. It consisted of much armchair speculation, and many of the notions it developed about how the world worked were not well grounded in evidence. But in the 1920s, there developed in American sociology, largely at the University of Chicago, a more intense commitment to the idea that such theoretical speculations were not enough— that sociology as a discipline needed to ground its concepts and theories in facts and data. This goal for sociology was represented in two figures, both of whom were professors at the University of Chicago: Robert Park (1864–1944) and William Ogburn (1886–1959). ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS: HISTORICAL CONTEXT Robert Park (1864–1944) Park’s told his students that to do real research they needed to get the seat of their pants dirty, to wear out their shoe leather to discover the truth. Park thought that the most important thing for a sociologist to do was to go around all the neighborhoods of the city and find out what was going on by meeting the people who were the subjects of the sociologists’ theories. Following Park’s lead, the University of Chicago’s sociology department used the city as a laboratory. Its sociologists took on roles in the community to see how the community’s members lived, conducting interviews and firsthand observation. Their research reports tended to be highly systematic, well written, and oriented toward improving conditions in the city and around the United States. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS: HISTORICAL CONTEXT William Ogburn (1886–1959) William Ogburn, however, Park’s colleague in the department of sociology at the University of Chicago, didn’t believe that the future of sociology lay in shoe leather, well-written books, findings that could not be quantified, or efforts to influence public policy. These, he thought, were the domain of politics, ethics, religion, journalism, and propaganda. In his presidential address to the American Sociological Society, he argued that sociology needed to become a science. The goal, he argued, was not “to make the world a better place in which to live” or to set forth “impressions of life” or to “[guide] the ship of state” but only to “[discover] new knowledge.” Ogburn wanted sociology to be a field that looked a lot more like the natural sciences in both its presentation and its orientation. He believed sociologists could study anything that could be measured with numbers.  CONCEPT CHECKS 1. How did Park and Ogburn approach sociological research differently? In what ways did each sociologist influence researchers today? ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH METHODS The diverse methods of investigation used to gather empirical (factual) material. Different research methods exist in sociology, but the most commonly used are: A. F i e l d w o r k ( o r E t h n o g r a p h y [ p a r t i c i p a n t / nonparticipant observation]) and B. survey methods. For many purposes, it is useful to combine two or more methods within a single research project. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS ETHNOGRAPHY One widely used qualitative method is Ethnography (Field Research), or firsthand studies of people using observations, interviews, or both. Here, the investigator socializes, works, or lives with members of a group, organization, or community. In the case of participant observation, the researcher participates directly in the activities he or she is studying. Other ethnographers non-participant observation, by contrast, may observe at a distance and not participate directly in the activities under observation. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS ETHNOGRAPHY: LIMITATIONS 1. It may be difficult to control personal bias. 2. The presence of the observer may influence the behavior of the group. 3. It may be difficult to gain acceptance by the group to be studied. 4. It may be difficult to record information as it occurs, and important details may be forgotten. 5. There may be legal or moral problems: for example, a delinquent gang may expect behavior which is either illegal or contrary to the values of the observer. 6. There may be ethical implications: for example, 'undercover' operations tend to require lying in order to maintain 'cover'. 7. Participant observation is very time-consuming; it can create problems of cost and disrupt the 'normal' lifestyle of the researcher. 8. Results can not be generalized ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS ETHNOGRAPHY: ADVANTAGES 1. Some groups may have a lifestyle which makes it difficult to study them in any other way. For example: Delinquent gangs (might resent interviewers and refuse questionnaires). Gypsies (move around frequently; might not be able to read questionnaires). 2. Researcher can fully understand relationships within the group being studied and therefore understand why people behave in a particular way (and appreciate their point of view). 3. It is possible to study everyday routines and spot factors which might not appear important to the group members and which it would not occur to them to mention in other circumstances. 4. Unexpected factors may emerge which the researcher might not have thought of. 5. It is possible to record non-verbal communication ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS SURVEYS SURVEYS Quantitative methodologists have a range of analytical tools and data resources at their disposal, but surveys are the most commonly used. When conducting a survey, researchers ask subjects to provide answers to structured questionnaires, which are administered in person or mailed to a select group of people. This group is known as a population. While ethnographies are best suited for Qualitative in-depth studies of small slices of social life, survey research produces information that is less detailed but can be generalized to the population as a whole. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS SURVEYS: STANDARDIZED AND OPEN- ENDED QUESTIONS STANDARDIZED or Closed-Ended Questions – Survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARH METHODS SURVEYS: STANDARDIZED AND OPEN- ENDED QUESTIONS STANDARDIZED or Closed-Ended Questions – Survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. (LIKERT SCALE) ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARH METHODS SURVEYS: OPEN- ENDED QUESTIONS For Example: How do plan to use your college education? involves so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. This type of information is qualitative data—results that are subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS SURVEYS SAMPLING Often sociologists are interested in the characteristics of large numbers of individuals—for example, political attitudes of a specific population. In such situations, researchers concentrate on a sample, or a small proportion of the overall group. Usually, the results from a properly chosen sample can be generalized to the total population. Studies of only 2,000–3,000 voters, for instance, can accurately indicate the attitudes and voting intentions of the entire voting population of the USA. But to achieve such accuracy, we need a representative sample; the group of individuals studied must be typical, or representative, of the population as a whole. Because sampling is highly complex, statisticians have developed rules for working out the correct size and nature of samples. A particularly important procedure that ensures that a sample is representative is random sampling, in which every member of the sample population has the same probability of being included. representative sample ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS SURVEYS STANDARDIZED AND OPEN- ENDED QUESTIONS: PILOT STUDY Most surveys are preceded by pilot studies, which reveal problems with the survey not anticipated by the investigator. A pilot study is a trial run in which just a few people participate. Any difficulties can then be ironed out before the main survey takes place. Questionnaires should also accommodate the characteristics of respondents. Will they see the point of a particular question? Might it offend them? Do they have enough information to answer usefully? Will they answer at all? A questionnaire’s terminology might be unfamiliar; for instance, “What is your marital status?” might better be asked as, “Are you single, married, separated, or divorced?” ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS SURVEYS: ADVANTAGES 1. Quick. 2. Cheap. 3. Easily tabulated and correlated. 4. No interviewer bias. 5. Gives people time to think before answering questions. 6. People may be more likely to answer embarrassing questions. 7. No geographical restriction: people anywhere in the world can be surveyed. (especially in postal surveys) ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS SURVEYS: DIS-ADVANTAGES 1. Poor response rate (i.e. comparatively few questionnaires are likely to be returned). 2. Unrepresentative (as a result of the poor response rate). This failing is increased if the target respondents are self-selecting- e.g. returning questionnaires published in newspapers. 3. Questions may be misinterpreted (no one will be available to explain). 4. Little opportunity to elaborate answers. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS A RECENT EXAMPLE One of the most famous contemporary surveys is the General Social Survey, which has been administered to Americans since 1972. It is sometimes called the “pulse of America,” as it has tracked the social life of Americans for decades. One of its most significant and controversial findings of recent years came from an analysis of the number of real-life “friends” Americans were reporting. The results suggested that Americans had fewer confidants than in the past, and that a growing number couldn’t name a single person with whom they shared “important matters.” The implication was that Americans were growing lonelier (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, and Brashears, 2006). How did the researchers evaluate whether friendships were declining over time? What accounts for this decline? The study was based on face-to-face interviews with a nationally representative sample of nearly 1,500 American adults. All had participated in the long-running General Social Survey and were asked questions about their social networks. Specifically, they were asked to identify people with whom they had discussed “matters [that are] important to [them]” in the past six months. On average, they named 2.08 people in 2004, compared to 2.94 people in 1985. The proportion of respondents who reported that there was no one with whom they discussed important matters fell from 10 percent in 1985 to 25 percent in 2004. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS EXPERIMENTS Experiment is a research method by which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and systematic way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in a naturally occurring setting. In a typical experiment, people are randomly assigned to two groups. The first, called an experimental group, receives some special attention based on the researcher’s theory; the second, the control group, does not receive this attention. The subjects usually do not know to which group they have been assigned and seldom know the purpose of the experiment, though this is not always the case. ASKING AND ANSWERING SOCIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS TODAY: RESEARCH METHODS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTS ADVANTAGE: The advantage of experimental studies is that researchers can test a hypothesis under highly controlled conditions established by the researcher. The ability to control experimental conditions, however, is also the principal weakness of experimental studies, which in many ways are artificial. DISADVANTAGE: To the extent that the laboratory fails to duplicate a natural setting, it is difficult to generalize the results of laboratory experiments to the larger society. We can bring only small groups of individuals into a laboratory setting, and, in such experiments, people know they are being studied and may behave unnaturally. As a result, sociologists sometimes use field experiments, in which a real-life situation is simulated as accurately as possible. Hawthorne Effect CAN SOCIOLOGY IDENTIFY CAUSES AND EFFECTS? Hawthorne Effect In the 1920s, leaders of a Chicago factory called Hawthorne Works commissioned a study to determine whether or not lighting could increase or decrease worker productivity. Sociologists were brought in. Changes were made. Productivity increased. Results were published. But when the study was over, productivity dropped again. Why did this happen? In 1953, Henry A. Landsberger analyzed the study results to answer this question. He realized that employee productivity increased because sociologists were paying attention to them. The sociologists’ presence influenced the study results. Worker behaviors were altered not by the lighting but by the study itself. From this, sociologists learned the importance of carefully planning their roles as part of their research design (Franke and Kaul 1978). Experimental group: exposed to independent variable (LIGHT) Control group: not exposed to independent variable Hawthorne Effect defines the unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects. People changing their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. 61 Hawthorne Effect Hawthorne Effect Experimental group: exposed to independent variable (LIGHT) Control group: not exposed to independent variable Hawthorne Effect: unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects. People changing their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study 62 Hawthorne Factory COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL RESEARCH Comparative Research - Research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies. Most comparative work is quantitative in that researchers aim to document whether behaviors and attitudes change over time and place; thus, a consistent metric is required to make comparisons. Consider the American rate of divorce— the number of divorces per thousand married people. Divorce rates rose rapidly in the United States after World War II, reaching a peak in 1979. Since then, the divorce rate has dropped by nearly a quarter, with only 16.9 marriages per 1,000 ending in divorce in 2015 (Anderson, 2016)—a statistic expressing profound changes in the area of sexual relations and family life. 64 COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL RESEARCH One classic study that investigated a much longer period and applied comparative research in a historical context was Theda Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions (1979), one of the best- known studies of social change. To produce a theory of the origins and nature of revolution grounded in detailed empirical study, Skocpol looked at processes of revolution in three historical contexts: The 1789 revolution in France, The 1917 revolution in Russia (which brought the Communists to power and established the Soviet Union, which was eventually dissolved in 1989), and The revolution of 1949 in China (which created Communist China). By analyzing a variety of documentary sources, Skocpol was able to develop a powerful explanation of revolutionary change, one that emphasized underlying social structural conditions. She showed that social revolutions are largely the result of unintended consequences. Before the Russian Revolution, for instance, various political groups were trying to overthrow the regime, but none of these groups—including the Bolsheviks (Communists), who eventually came to power— anticipated the revolution that occurred. A series of clashes and confrontations gave rise to a process of social transformation that was much more radical than anyone had foreseen. At the time that Skocpol wrote, existing theories basically related the emergence of revolutions to the strength of social movements, and these to class relations. Skocpol showed: 1. first, that state structures are as important as class relations are more important than the strength of the revolutionary movements; and 2. second, that these state structures are heavily influenced by international events (for instance, revolutions come in the wake of a breakdown in state authority often due to lost international wars). 65 COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL RESEARCH In recent years, Andreas Wimmer has taken up an alternative approach to historical sociology. He uses formal modeling and statistical techniques to analyze hundreds of cases at the same time, rather than a few famous ones In his monumental book Waves of War (2012), Wimmer used this approach to study war as a sociological phenomenon, drawing on large original data sets. He found that if we look at all wars that occurred throughout history, a major shift has occurred. Prior to the nineteenth century, most wars were driven by conquest, or the desire of states to achieve or throw off a certain balance of power in their region. More recently, wars have been driven by ethnic and nationalist concerns. According to Wimmer, whereas Karl Marx once proclaimed that the twentieth century would be the age of revolutionary class struggle, it turned into the age of ethno-nationalist conflict. 66 UNANSWERED QUESTIONS HOW CAN SOCIAL RESEARCH AVOID EXPLOITATION? All research involving human beings can pose ethical dilemmas. A key question for sociologists is whether research poses risks to subjects that are greater than the risks those subjects face in their everyday lives. For example, ethnographers and field researchers conducting research in areas with high crime rates potentially risk getting their subjects arrested with their writings or getting themselves arrested simply for observing and participating in the lives of the people whom they are trying to understand. Are social scientists benefitting at their subjects’ expense? The question of exploitation arises more in qualitative field studies than in quantitative research, but it must be considered whenever people’s careers come to depend on the advancement of sociological knowledge. For example, if a scholar earns money on a book based on cooperation with research subjects, should that money be shared with the subjects? 70 UNANSWERED QUESTIONS CAN WE REALLY STUDY HUMAN SOCIAL LIFE IN A SCIENTIFIC WAY? To answer this question, we must first understand what science means. Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of data, theoretical thinking, and the logical assessment of arguments to develop a body of knowledge about specific subject matter. According to this definition, sociology is a scientific endeavor. However, sociology is not equivalent to a natural science. Unlike natural phenomena and animals, humans are self-aware beings who confer sense and purpose on what they do. We can’t describe social life accurately unless we grasp the concepts that people apply in their own behavior. For instance, to describe a death as a suicide means knowing what the person intended when he died. Suicide can occur only when an individual has self- destruction actively in mind. If he accidentally steps in front of a car and is killed, he cannot be said to have committed suicide. 71 THE END