Sociology Chapter 2: Asking and Answering Sociological Questions

Asking and Answering Sociological Questions

• Sociological research involves asking questions, defining problems, and seeking answers through systematic research processes.

Sociological Research and Common Sense

• Sociologists move beyond common sense to investigate and provide insights into how human societies function.
• Common sense can be misguided, and sociological research can contradict or confirm prevailing notions about social life.

What is a Valid Sociological Topic?

• Sociologists study a wide range of topics, including broad matters like race relations, the military, and the global economic crisis, as well as individualistic matters like how people interact on street corners.
• Sociologists study various groups of people, from nuns and prostitutes to cops and criminals.

Sociological Approach to Studying Social Life

• Sociological questions examine the social meaning or patterns of a phenomenon, involving groups rather than individuals.
• Examples of sociological questions include:
  • Does treatment for HIV vary by social class and ethnicity?
  • How do different cultures view and treat the elderly?

Different Types of Questions

• Factual questions provide information about what, who, and how.
• Comparative questions examine patterns among groups and ask "how usual is this?"
• Theoretical questions explore the nature of relationships between variables.

Sociological Research as a Scientific Endeavor

• Sociological research involves:
  • Systematic method
  • Empirical investigation
  • Data analysis
  • Theoretical thinking
  • Logical assessment of argument

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

• Quantitative research uses numerical data and is often used in surveys and experiments.
• Qualitative research uses non-numerical data and is often used in observations and informal interviews.

Inference, Generalization, Reliability, and Validity

• Inference involves drawing conclusions about a larger population based on a sample.
• Generalization increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group.
• Reliability increases the likelihood of consistent results.
• Validity ensures that the study measures what it is designed to measure.

The Uncertainty Principle

• The conclusions of all scientific research, including sociology, are uncertain.
• Researchers must be clear about all the sources of uncertainty in their study.

Reflexivity

• Reflexivity is the acknowledgement of the researcher's role in the social scene they are studying.
• This includes power dynamics among subjects and the influence of personal values or identity on the research.

The Research Process

• Step 1: Ask a question and define the problem
• Step 2: Review the literature
• Step 3: Make the problem precise (formulate a hypothesis)
• Step 4: Work out a design
• Step 5: Interpret the results
• Step 6: Report the findings

Historical Context

• In the 1920s, American sociology became more committed to grounding concepts and theories in facts and data.
• Two influential figures in this movement were Robert Park and William Ogburn.

Robert Park

• Park believed that sociologists should conduct firsthand research and gather data through observation and interviews.
• He advocated for getting out into the field and wearing out one's shoe leather to discover the truth.

William Ogburn

• Ogburn believed that sociology should be a science, focused on discovering new knowledge.
• He wanted sociology to use numerical data and be more like the natural sciences.

Research Methods

• Fieldwork (ethnography) and survey methods are commonly used in sociology.
• Ethnography involves firsthand studies of people using observations, interviews, or both.
• Survey methods involve collecting data through questionnaires or interviews.

Limitations of Ethnography

• Personal bias can be difficult to control.

• The presence of the observer may influence the behavior of the group.

• It may be difficult to generalize findings to a larger population.### Sociological Research Methods

• Participant observation: a research method where the researcher immerses themselves in the group or community being studied to gain a deeper understanding of their behavior and relationships.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation

• Difficulty in gaining acceptance from the group being studied
• Difficulty in recording information as it occurs, with important details potentially being forgotten
• Legal or moral problems, such as being expected to behave in a way that is illegal or contrary to the researcher's values
• Ethical implications, such as lying to maintain cover
• Time-consuming and costly, potentially disrupting the researcher's normal lifestyle
• Results may not be generalizable to other groups or populations

Advantages of Ethnography

• Useful for studying groups that are difficult to access through other methods
• Allows for a deeper understanding of relationships within the group and the researcher's point of view
• Enables the study of everyday routines and the identification of factors that may not be immediately apparent
• Allows for the discovery of unexpected factors
• Enables the recording of non-verbal communication

Surveys

• A quantitative research method that involves asking subjects to provide answers to structured questionnaires
• Can be used to study large groups of people and provide generalizable results
• Often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors

Types of Survey Questions

• Standardized or closed-ended questions: respondents are asked to select an answer from a list provided by the researcher
• Open-ended questions: respondents are asked to provide their own answers in their own words

Pilot Studies

• A small-scale trial of a survey to test its validity and identify any potential problems
• Helps to identify issues with the questionnaire and ensure that it is effective in gathering the desired data

Advantages of Surveys

• Quick and inexpensive to administer
• Easily tabulated and correlated
• No interviewer bias
• Gives respondents time to think before answering
• May be more likely to get honest answers to embarrassing questions
• No geographical restrictions, can be administered to people all over the world

Disadvantages of Surveys

• Poor response rate, potentially leading to unrepresentative results
• Questions may be misinterpreted, with no opportunity for clarification
• Limited opportunity for respondents to elaborate on their answers

Experiments

• A research method that involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent variable
• Used to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships
• Can be used in a laboratory or field setting

Advantages of Experiments

• Allow for the testing of hypotheses in a controlled and systematic way
• Enable the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships

Disadvantages of Experiments

• May not be able to generalize results to real-life situations
• Artificial laboratory setting may not accurately reflect real-life situations
• Subjects may behave unnaturally due to the awareness of being studied

Hawthorne Effect

• The unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects
• People may change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study

Comparative Historical Research

• A research method that involves comparing data from different societies or time periods
• Used to identify patterns and trends, and to develop explanations of social change

Examples of Comparative Historical Research

• Theda Skocpol's study of social revolutions in France, Russia, and China
• Andreas Wimmer's study of war as a sociological phenomenon, using large datasets and statistical techniques

Unanswered Questions

• How can social research avoid exploitation of research subjects?
• Can social research be truly scientific, given the complexity and uniqueness of human behavior?