Social Psychology PDF

sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iv sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page i This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the...

sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iv sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page i This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources WR ÀW HYHU\ OHDUQLQJ VW\OH With WileyPLUS: ‡ Students achieve concept ‡ Instructors personalize and manage mastery in a rich, their course more effectively with structured environment assessment, assignments, grade that’s available 24/7 tracking, and more ‡ manage time better ‡study smarter ‡ save money From multiple study paths, to self-assessment, to a wealth of interactive visual and audio resources, WileyPLUS gives you everything you need to personalize the teaching and learning experience. » F i n d o u t h ow t o M A K E I T YO U R S » www.wileyplus.com sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page ii ALL THE HELP, RESOURCES, AND PERSONAL SUPPORT YOU AND YOUR STUDENTS NEED! 2-Minute Tutorials and all Student support from an of the resources you & your experienced student user students need to get started Ask your local representative Collaborate with your colleagues, www.wileyplus.com/firstday for details! find a mentor, attend virtual and live events, and view resources www.WhereFacultyConnect.com Pre-loaded, ready-to-use Technical Support 24/7 Your WileyPLUS assignments and presentations FAQs, online chat, Account Manager www.wiley.com/college/quickstart and phone support Training and implementation support www.wileyplus.com/support www.wileyplus.com/accountmanager MAKE IT YOURS! sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iii SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iv sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page v SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY C A T H E R I N E A. S A N D E R S O N A M H E R S T C O L L E G E JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:14 Page vi Vice President & Publisher Jay O’Callaghan Executive Editor Christopher Johnson Senior Editor Leslie Kraham Assistant Editor Eileen McKeever Executive Marketing Manager Danielle Torio Production Manager Dorothy Sinclair Senior Production Editor Sandra Dumas Designer Brian Salisbury Media Editor Melissa Edwards Illustration Editor Anna Melhorn Photo Department Manager Hilary Newman Senior Photo Editor Elinor Wagner Media Editor Lynn Pearlman Production Management Services Ingrao Associates Cover Photo Clockwise from top left: iStockphoto; Blend Images/Getty Images, Inc.; Westend61/SuperStock; Digital Vision/Getty Images, Inc.; Image Source/Getty Images, Inc.; Photodisc/Getty Images, Inc.; Frida Marquez/Getty Images, Inc.; Blend Images/Getty Images, Inc.; Tim Klein/Stone/Getty Images, Inc. This book was typeset in 10/12 Sabon Regular by Prepare and printed and bound by Courier/Kendallville. The cover was printed by Courier/Kendallville. The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield harvesting of its timberlands. Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth. This book is printed on acid-free paper. q Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 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Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. ISBN 13 978-0470-25026-5 ISBN 13 978-0470-55646-7 Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page vii To Andrew Reese, Robert Parks, and Caroline Kenton sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page viii sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page ix ABOUT THE AUTHOR CATHERINE A. SANDERSON is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Amherst College. She earned her A.B. at Stanford University and her M.S. and Ph.D. at Princeton University. While at Princeton, she received the Psychology Department’s First Year Merit Prize, a National Science Foundation Fellowship, and a Dissertation Research Award from the American Psychological Association. Sanderson’s research, which has received funding from the National Institute of Health, is based in social-personality psychology and specifically on issues within close relationships and health-related behavior, such as the interaction of individ- uals in close relationships; individuals’ accuracy in perceiving others’ attitudes and behavior; and why individuals learn more when they receive personally-relevant or “matching” messages. Sanderson is the author of Slow and Steady Parenting: Active Child-Raising for the Long Haul as well as a textbook entitled Health Psychology. She has served on the Editorial Boards for Health Psychology, the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and the Journal of Research in Personality. In addition, Sanderson writes a “Body Talk” blog for Psychology Today. In her introductory psychology and social psychology courses at Amherst College, Sanderson’s teaching emphasizes providing students with general information and skills in interpreting and understanding research that can then be explored in more detail in future classes as well as be used in some way in their day to day lives. She also teaches more specialized classes that focus in depth on health psychol- ogy, close relationships, and sports psychology. These classes offer a different type of challenge, namely working with students to critically examine, discuss, and write about empirical research in particular areas. IX sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page x sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:14 Page xi TAKE STUDENTS FURTHER! Catherine Sanderson’s Social Psychology helps open students’ minds to a world beyond their own experience so that they will better understand themselves and others. Sanderson’s uniquely powerful program of learning resources was built to support you in moving students from passive observers to active course participants. Go further in applying social psychology to everyday life. Sanderson includes six application boxes on business, law, media, environment, health, and/or education in every chapter right as the relevant material is intro- duced, rather than at the end of the book. This allows students to make an imme- diate connection between the concept and the relevant application – and provides a streamlined 13-chapter organization that helps you cover more of the material in a term. Go further with research. Help your students understand and appre- ciate the importance of research in social psychology and how social psycholo- gists know what they know. Go further with culture. More than any other book, Sanderson’s Social Psychology helps students understand how key social psychological concepts in each chapter of the book apply to people from other cultures. The last section of each chapter reviews the topics in the chapter in the context of other cultures. Go further with homework and study materials with a robust set of end-of-chapter activities and our powerful media resource, WileyPLUS. This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources to fit every learning style. XI sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xii sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xiii PREFACE THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK Students vary considerably in their backgrounds, interests, experiences, and per- sonal and professional aspirations. This book brings social psychology to all of these students—students who will continue their interest in social psychology in graduate programs, students who will become educators, business people, or health professionals, and students who take this course out of sheer curiosity about social psychology. Through a combination of a lively and current introduction to social science research, a uniquely accessible approach to thinking scientifically, and online teach- ing and learning resources that immerse students in social psychology in the world today, this book will help you open students’ minds to a world beyond their own experience so that they can better understand themselves and others. My primary goal is to help students see the many intersections of social psychology in every- day life. An appreciation of the scientific processes behind these connections will enable them to develop the skills to become critical consumers of information in the world around them. To reach every student, the writing about social psychology must be accessi- ble, the research presented with clarity, and the content stimulating and compre- hensive, but not overwhelming. This text is therefore written in a light and engaging style, to appeal to every student—non-majors and majors. Both classic and contemporary research is described in a clear and vivid way, with examples of research studies throughout specifically chosen to be interesting and relevant for the college student reader. Students benefit as they see themselves reflected in the discussion of social psy- chology and are given the opportunity to connect to this discussion and see social psychology through the lens of their daily lives. In addition, the diversity of the student population is mirrored in the evolving and diverse views in the field of social psychology (which has growing research on culture, gender, and neuro- science). The role of culture in social behavior is incorporated in every chapter of this book, reflecting the growth of research in this field and encouraging cultural awareness in students. FEATURES Social Psychology helps students learn to think critically, to apply social psychol- ogy to everyday life, and to address the central role of diversity, in the student population, the world at large, and even in the field of social psychology. It frames content coverage with five key ideas, designed to get students actively participating in the study of social psychology. Think Critically Make Connections Understand the Big Picture A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words Culture Matters These ideas are carefully interwoven throughout the narrative and pedagogy. The Illustrated Book Tour on the following pages provides a guide to the innovative features contributing to Social Psychology’s pedagogical plan. PREFACE XIII sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xiv THINK CRITICALLY Social Psychology shows students the many ways that social psychology helps them to think about the world. It provides the tools they need to actively engage in critical thinking and analysis. A separate chapter on research methods describes the strengths and weaknesses of different methods, as well as strategies for increasing validity of research studies. QUESTIONING THE RESEARCH queries in each chapter prompt students to actively question the results and implications of particular research studies. For example, if you find that college students who come to a workshop entitled “stopping binge drinking” are shown to drink less than their peers, can you be sure that the workshop caused this change? Why or why not? These features encourage critical thinking and facilitate students’ awareness of the many ways that social psychology helps them to think about the world. XIV PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xv MAKE CONNECTIONS Social Psychology helps students learn to think critically, to apply social psychology to everyday life, and helps students make critical connections to real life and to their own lives. Students will be most willing to commit time and energy to a topic when they believe that it is relevant to their own life or to their future career. There is no better way to demonstrate relevance than to ground discussion in the real world. CONNECTIONS BOXES apply topics in each chapter to the broader themes of Health, Law, Environment, Business, Education, and Media. These applications are uniquely integrated directly with the topics as they are discussed, instead of being grouped in chapters at the end of the book. This organization responds to the preference expressed by a vast majority of reviewers. RATE YOURSELF QUIZZES occur in each chapter to encourage students to become active participants in the material they are learning and see how their personal results or reactions to the material compare with those discussed in the text. Several of these occur in each chapter as a way to encourage the reader to make a connection to the topic and to increase awareness of their own thoughts and perceptions. TAKE ACTION queries at the end of each chapter ask students to take an active role in applying social psychology to their own lives. PREFACE XV sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:14 Page xvi UNDERSTAND THE BIG PICTURE To help students appreciate the connections between the broad range of topics covered throughout the book and understand how each topic contributes to the whole of social psychology, the first chapter describes three central themes of social psychology: The social world influences how we think about ourselves The social world influences our thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors Our attitudes and behavior shape the social world around us A Big Picture summary table at the end of each chapter connects the specific material learned in each chapter to these key ideas in the course. XVI PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xvii A PICTURE IS WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS In Social Psychology, art is a true learning tool! This text features a completely unique new approach to research-based graphs throughout all chapters. Graphs are annotated to help students interpret the key findings in the research and to help students understand the Independent and Dependent variables in the research studies through consistent reinforcement of these concepts. PREFACE XVII sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xviii CULTURE MATTERS How Does Culture Influence…? sections at the end of each chapter review chapter topics with a focus on how the findings and theories that have been presented might in fact differ in various cultures. These sections simultaneously review prior material from the chapter and engage students meaningfully with cultural issues. Through this consistent approach, students will better appreciate the role of culture in social behavior. For example, students will learn that some expressions that are extremely popular in American culture (e.g., “Be Yourself”) might not work so well in countries that value connection and interdependence over individualism. XVIII PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xix FOCUS ON GENDER AND NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH FOCUS ON GENDER sections in most chapters examine a particular issue related to gender in depth. This information will help students understand how research in social psychology contributes to our understanding of gender differences and similarities. RESEARCH FOCUS ON NEUROSCIENCE sections in most chapters examine specific neuroscience research studies in depth. This information will help students understand how the rapidly growing field of neuroscience contributes to our knowledge about social psychological theories in a way that is not currently seen in other books. PREFACE XIX sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xx BRING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO LIFE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION The accompanying online WileyPLUS course offers materials for both students and instructors that are fully integrated, not tacked on as an afterthought. The built-in study material is tied to learning objectives in each chapter and is fully assignable and assessable. RESEARCH CONNECTIONS activities take students from passive observers to active participants in the process of “doing” social psychology and will help to ensure their mastery of core concepts and ideas. The on-line environment allows students the freedom to accomplish things they couldn’t do otherwise, such as participating in research studies, testing research hypotheses, designing their own social psychology experiments, manipulating data, and analyzing their results. XX PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:14 Page xxi ORGANIZATION AND PEDAGOGICAL PLAN The book moves logically from beginning to end, starting with how we see ourselves and others, and then moving to address how we interact with others in group settings, including both positive and negative interactions. The chapters can be covered in any order, depending on the organization of a particular course. The table of contents has been kept to 13 chapters so that instructors are more likely to be able to cover the entire book. I encourage readers to ask themselves these questions as they read each chapter, and chapters are organized to facilitate this: What does the research say about this topic? How can I think critically about the research? How does this concept relate to everyday life? How does culture influence this concept? Each chapter follows a carefully developed pedagogical approach designed to help students master the material. Chapters are organized around five central topics, listed on the opening page of the chapter under the heading What You’ll Learn, and each of these topics is introduced via a specific research study with compelling and highly relevant findings. Did You Ever Wonder? questions at the start of the chapter introduce these high-interest findings which are then described in detail at the start of each of the five sections throughout the chapter. Then, at the end of each of these major sections comes a Concepts in Context summary table. These section summaries help students synthesize the material, but more importantly, understand its real-world applications. Finally, at the end of the chapter comes What You’ve Learned, a summary of the material in the chapter, organized around each of the five main chapter headings. The chapter concludes with Review Questions, Take Action activities and Research Connections activities, all organized around the five main chapter headings and designed to help students review and apply core concepts while, at the same time, allowing them to take the material further through real world applications and opportunities to experience social psychological research first hand. WileyPLUS This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources to fit every learning style. WITH WileyPLUS: Students achieve concept mastery in a rich, structured environment that’s avail- able 24/7. Instructors personalize and manage their course more effectively with assessment, assignments, grade tracking, and more. WileyPLUS can complement your current textbook or replace the printed text altogether. FOR STUDENTS PERSONALIZE THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE Different learning styles, different levels of proficiency, different levels of prepara- tion—each of your students is unique. WileyPLUS empowers them to take advan- tage of their individual strengths: Students receive timely access to resources that address their demonstrated needs, and get immediate feedback and remediation when needed. PREFACE XXI sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxii Integrated, multi-media resources—including audio and visual exhibits, research activities, and much more—provide multiple study-paths to fit each student’s learning preferences and encourage more active learning. WileyPLUS includes many opportunities for self-assessment linked to the rele- vant portions of the text. Students can take control of their own learning and practice until they master the material. FOR INSTRUCTORS PERSONALIZE THE TEACHING EXPERIENCE WileyPLUS empowers you with the tools and resources you need to make your teaching even more effective: You can customize your classroom presentation with a wealth of resources and functionality from PowerPoint slides to a database of rich visuals. You can even add your own materials to your WileyPLUS course. With WileyPLUS you can identify those students who are falling behind and intervene accordingly, without having to wait for them to come to office hours. WileyPLUS simplifies and automates such tasks as student performance assess- ment, making assignments, scoring student work, keeping grades, and more. STUDENT AND INSTRUCTOR SUPPORT Social Psychology is accompanied by a host of ancillary materials designed to facilitate a mastery of social psychology. WILEYPLUS www.wileyplus.com This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources to fit every learning style. RESEARCH CONNECTIONS ACTIVITIES These interactive online activities created by Catherine Sanderson and Katherine Dowdell of Des Moines Area Community College, and available in WileyPLUS, take students from passive observers to active participants in the process of “doing” social psychology and will help to ensure their mastery of core concepts and ideas. These online activities allow students to participate in research studies, test hypotheses, and design their own research studies. VIDEOS (UPON ADOPTION) Wiley partners with the Films for the Humanities to offer an outstanding selec- tion of videos (including Roger Bingham’s series on the brain). Perfect for introducing new topics, enlivening your classroom presentations, and stimulating student discussion. INSTRUCTOR RESOURCE WEBSITE This comprehensive website is uploaded with resources to help you prepare for class, enhance your presentations, and assess your students’ progress. The text- book’s Test Bank, Instructor’s Resource Guide, Power Points, and Image Gallery can be accessed directly from the website. XXII PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxiii TEST BANK (AVAILABLE IN RESPONDUS FORMAT, AND IN WORD FORMAT) Prepared by Robin Musselman of Lehigh Carbon Community College, the test bank to accompany Social Psychology is available in printed form as well as online. Instructors can customize exams by adding new questions or editing existing ones. INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE GUIDE Prepared by Chris Mazurek of Columbia College, this comprehensive resource includes a wealth of resources for instructors. For each text chapter in the text, this comprehensive resource includes: chapter outline lecture launchers key points the student should know, key terms discussion stimulators POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS Prepared by Brian Parry of Mesa State College of Colorado, this full set of dynamic and colorful PowerPoints for each chapter highlights the major terms and concepts. POWER POINT IMAGE GALLERY Online electronic files are available for most figures and tables in the text, which allow you to easily incorporate them into your Power Point presentations or to create your own overhead transparencies and handouts. STUDENT LEARNING RESOURCES Student Resources, such as flashcards, self-quizzes (prepare by Andrea Mercurio of Boston University), and chapter objectives are available on the student website to provide a wealth of support materials that will help students develop their understanding of class material and master the material. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Writing a textbook is a labor of love, and hence I want to acknowledge and thank the numerous people who have contributed in large and small ways over the year. To the reviewers and focus group participants, I offer my sincere appreciation. Thank you for taking time away from your own research and teaching to read drafts of my book or evaluate the art and media programs, and provide thoughtful and construc- tive feedback. I am deeply indebted to all of the individuals listed below. MANUSCRIPT REVIEWERS Allison Abbe, George Washington University Mark Agars, California State University, San Bernardino Joan Bailey, New Jersey City University Daniel Barrett, Western Connecticut State University Frank Barrios, University of Northern Iowa Carolyn Becker, Trinity University PREFACE XXIII sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxiv Shawn Bediako, University of Maryland, Baltimore County Melinda Blackman, California State University, Fullerton Jennifer Brennom, Kirkwood Community College Justin Buckingham, Towson University Melissa Burkley, Oklahoma State University Melissa Cahoon, University of Dayton Judith Chapman, Saint Joseph’s University Tsu-Ming Chiang, Georgia College & State University Nicholas Christenfeld, University of California, San Diego Chante Cox-Boyd, Carnegie Mellon University Don Corriveau, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Kellina Craig-Henderson, Howard University Layton Curl, Metropolitan State College of Denver Deborah Davis, University of Nevada, Reno Jennifer Devenport, Western Washington University Lynda Dodgen, Lone Star College-North Harris Amanda Dykema-Engblade, Northeastern Illinois University Steve Ellyson, Youngstown State University James Evans, Louisiana State University-Shreveport Sharon Fair, University of St. Augustine for Health Science Kimberly Fairchild, Manhattan College Phillip Finney, Southeast Missouri State University Phyllis Freeman, State University of New York, New Paltz Bill Gabrenya, Florida Institute of Technology David Gersh, Houston Community College Eugene Gilden, Linfield College William Goggin, University of Southern Mississippi Penny Green, Colorado State University-Pueblo Christina Grimes, Duke University Judith Harackiewicz, University of Wisconsin-Madison Mark Hartlaub, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi Helen Harton, University of Northern Iowa Elaine Hatfield, University of Hawaii, Honolulu Misty Hook, Texas Women’s University Kathy Howard, Harding University Maria Hunt, Avila University Karen Huxtable-Jester, University of Texas at Dallas Matthew Isaak, University of Louisiana Julia Jacks, Guilford College Richard Jenks, Indiana University Southeast Susan Johnson, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Nancy Karlin, University of Northern Colorado Cynthia Kernahan, University of Wisconsin-River Falls Gagan Khera, George Washington University Suzanne Kieffer, University of Houston Jennifer Knack, University of Texas at Arlington Randi Koeske, University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg David Kopplin, Baylor University Catalina Kopetz, University of Maryland Robin Kowalski, Clemson University Neil Kressel, William Paterson University Suzanne Kurth, University of Tennessee Alan Lambert, Washington University in St. Louis Travis Langley, Henderson State University Marvin Lee, Tennessee State University Deborah Long, East Carolina University Amy Lyndon, East Carolina University Teresa Lyons, Salem State College Jeffrey Martin, Wayne State University XXIV PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxv Stephen Mayer, Oberlin College Kelly McGonigal, Stanford University J. Mark McKellop, Juniata College Jo Meier Marquis, University of Houston-Clear Lake Eric Miller, Kent State University Leslie Minor-Evans, Central Oregon Community College Daniel Molden, Northwestern University Melanie Moore, University of Northern Colorado Robin Morgan, Indiana University Southeast Janet Morgan Riggs, Gettysburg College Joel Morgovsky, Brookdale Community College Michael Nielsen, Georgia Southern University Virginia Norris, South Dakota State University Kerth O’Brien, Portland State University Carol Oyster, University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse Neophytos Papaneophytou, Baruch College Terry Pettijohn, Ohio State University at Marion Steven Phillips, Broward Community College Jason Plaks, University of Toronto Gregory Pool, St. Marys University Jackie Pope-Tarrence, Western Kentucky University Sharon Presley, California State University, East Bay Douglas Price, Tulsa Community College Mary Pritchard, Boise State University Chemba Raghavan, New College of Florida Michelle Rainey, Purdue University Pamela Regan, California State University, Los Angeles Elizabeth Rhodes, Florida International University Bob Ridge, Brigham Young University Rosann Ross, University of Northern Colorado Laurie Rudman, Rutgers University Michael Sakuma, Dowling College Cory Scherer, Northern Illinois University Wesley Schultz, California State University, San Marcos Catherine Schuman, University of Vermont Fred Shaffer, Truman State University Marne Sherman, University of Missouri-Kansas City Ellen Shupe, Grand Valley State University Christine Smith, Antioch College Margaret Snooks, University of Houston-Clear Lake Matthew Spackman, Brigham Young University Emily Sweitzer, California University of Pennsylvania Alexander Takeuchi, University of Northern Alabama Rowena Tan, University of Northern Iowa Ronald Thrasher, Oklahoma State University Nancy Tosh, Ventura College Loren Toussaint, Luther College Dana Tucker, Brigham Young University Jocelyn Turner-Musa, Morgan State University Eric Vanman, Georgia State University Chris Verwys, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Kathleen Vohs, University of Minnesota T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University Naomi Wagner, San Jose State University Patricia Wallace, Northern Illinois University George Whitehead, Salisbury University Aaron Wichman, Ohio State University Sara Wilcox, University of South Carolina Carol Wilkinson, Whatcom Community College PREFACE XXV sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxvi Larry Williams, Midwestern State University Judy Wilson, Palomar College Ann Winton, John Jay College William Woody, University of Northern Colorado Marcel Yoder, University of Illinois at Springfield ART REVIEWERS Joan Bailey, New Jersey City University Jennifer Brennom, Kirkwood Community College Justin Buckingham, Towson University Nicholas Christenfeld, University of California, San Diego Kellina Craig-Henderson, Howard University Steve Ellyson, Youngstown State University Elaine Hatfield, University of Hawaii, Honolulu Nancy Karlin, University of Northern Colorado Suzanne Kieffer, University of Houston Travis Langley, Henderson State University Neophytos Papaneophytou, Baruch College Mary Pritchard, Boise State University Bob Ridge, Brigham Young University Rowena Tan, University of Northern Iowa T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University George Whitehead, Salisbury University RESEARCH CONNECTIONS (MEDIA) REVIEWERS Justin Buckingham, Towson University Nicholas Christenfeld, University of California, San Diego Mark Hartlaub, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi Kathy Howard, Harding University Maria Hunt, Avila University Richard Jenks, Indiana University Southeast Travis Langley, Henderson State University Terry Pettijohn, Ohio State University at Marion Jason Plaks, University of Toronto Sharon Presley, California State University, East Bay Pamela Regan, California State University, Los Angeles Alexander Takeuchi, University of Northern Alabama T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University George Whitehead, Salisbury University FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS Amy Buddie, Kennesaw State Natalie Ciarocco, Monmouth University Vera Dunwoody, Chaffey College William Fry, Youngstown State University Eugene Gilden, Linfield College Omri Gillath, University of Kansas Judith Karackiewicz, University of Wisconsin Lisa A. Harrison, California State University, Sacramento Chris Long, Ouachita Baptist University Chris Mazurek, Columbia College Kathryn Oleson, Reed College Courtney Rocheleau, Appalachian State University Robin Vallacher, Florida Atlantic University Jason Young, Hunter College, CUNY XXVI PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxvii SUPPLEMENTS TEAM Katherine Dowdell, Des Moines Area Community College Chris Mazurek, Columbia College Andrea Mercurio, Boston University Robin Musselman, Lehigh Carbon Community College Brian Parry, Mesa State College of Colorado PROFESSIONAL FEEDBACK I am also thankful to the following instructors who took the time to have detailed conversations with us and provide feedback on the approach of this book. I really appreciate your feedback and ideas. Frank Adair, Louisiana State University Stephanie Afful, Fontbonne College Deb Belle, Boston University Bob Blodgett, Buena Vista University Kim Brown, Ball State University Mindy Burgess, Southwestern Oklahoma State University Nicholas Christenfeld, University of California-San Diego Laurie Couch, Morehead State University Kristy Dean, California State University, San Bernardino Jennifer Devenport, Western Washington University Steve Ellyson, Youngstown State University Phillip Finney, Southeast Missouri State University Cindy Frantz, Oberlin College David Gersh, Houston Community College William Goggin, University of Southern Mississippi Josh Greene, Harvard University Judith Harackiewicz, University of Wisconsin-Madison Gene Indenbaum, State University of New York at Farmingdale Billy Jones, Abilene Christian University Nancy Karlin, University of Northern Colorado Marika Lamoreaux, Georgia State University Angela Lipsitz, Northern Kentucky University Sterling McPherson, Washington State University Andrea Mercurio, Boston University David Morgan, Spalding University Jan Ochman, Inver Hills Community College Steven Phillips, Broward Community College Gregory Pool, St. Mary’s University Jackie Pope-Tarrence, Western Kentucky University M. Christine Porter, College of William and Mary Mary Pritchard, Boise State University Erin Richman, University of North Florida Bob Ridge, Brigham Young University Tamara Rowatt, Baylor University Natalie Shook, Virginia Commonwealth University Susan Kay Sprecher, Illinois State University Emily Stark, Minnesota State University, Mankato Rowena Tan, University of Northern Iowa Ronald Thrasher, Oklahoma State University Stephanie Tobin, University of Houston PREFACE XXVII sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxviii PERSONAL ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people at John Wiley & Sons, Inc. contributed tremendous time and energy to this book, and the book is much better for their efforts. I’d like to thank Jay O’Callaghan, Vice President and Publisher, for his support of this project over many years. I am very thankful to all of those who contributed to what I believe is an excellent design and art program for my book, including Brian Salisbury (Designer), Jeof Vita (Art Director), Elle Wagner (Photo Researcher), and Sheralee Connors, as well as to those who worked diligently on producing my book, includ- ing Sandra Dumas (Production Editor) and Suzanne Ingrao (Freelance Production Manager). My thanks also go to Ann Greenberger, Freelance Development Editor, who provided thoughtful and constructive guidance about how best to frame and present my ideas. Suzanna Zeitler, Associate Director of Market Development, Danielle Torio, Marketing Manager, and, especially, Barbara Heaney, Director of Product and Market Development, were extremely helpful in determining how best to market my book, which was no small task given the competition in the social psychology textbook market. I also want to thank Eileen McKeever, Assistant Editor, and Media Editors Lynn Pearlman and Bridget O’Lavin, for their consid- erable work on the supplements for my book, which I think will be invaluable to students and professors. I owe particular thanks to two people without whom this book would simply not have been possible: Chris Johnson, Executive Editor, and Leslie Kraham, Senior Development Editor. Chris provided thoughtful guidance in creating the overall vision for this book, and helped me to understand the importance of devel- oping features that would truly make a contribution to the field. I appreciate the considerable time and energy he has brought to this project over the years, and the book is much better precisely because at times he pushed me to go in new direc- tions with this project. Leslie, who has probably devoted almost as many hours over the last several years to this book as I have, has provided thorough feedback— both general and specific—about numerous aspects of this book. Her comments about virtually all aspects of the book—writing, art program, photographs, fig- ures, research ideas—have improved the nature of this book in multiple ways, and I am extremely lucky to have had her guidance and support. I also want to thank several people at Amherst College who helped with this book in various ways and at various stages. Early in the project, Darren Yopyk was very helpful in gathering research articles and cartoons, and made my initial writing much easier. Later in the project, Jack Grein went to considerable lengths to track down and alphabetize every single reference in the entire book. Throughout the project, Isabel Margolin assisted with mailing (many) drafts to Wiley as well as copying and scanning figures and cartoons. I am very grateful for all of their efforts. Finally, I’d like to thank my husband, Bart Hollander, for his tremendous sup- port of this project … which included allowing me to take over (at times) our study and our dining room, entertaining the kids on weekends and evenings while I fran- tically wrote and revised, and commiserating over numerous highs and lows as this project progressed over the years. The point of this book, obviously, is to share my love of the field of social psy- chology with students across the country, so I’d be very interested in hearing thoughts from students (and faculty) about how this book has worked for you (or your students). So, please drop me an email ([email protected]) and let me know what you think. Catherine A. Sanderson Amherst College XXVIII PREFACE sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxix BRIEF CONTENTS 1 Introducing Social Psychology 2 2 Research Methods 28 3 Self-Perception and Self-Presentation 62 4 Social Perception 110 5 Social Cognition 144 6 Attitude Formation and Change 180 7 Persuasion 216 8 Social Influence: Norms, Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience 248 9 Group Influence: The Impact of Group Processes 288 10 Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 330 11 Aggression 376 12 Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships 412 13 Altruism and Prosocial Behavior 460 GLOSSARY 502 REFERENCES 508 NAME INDEX 563 SUBJECT INDEX 579 XXIX sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxx sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxi CONTENTS 1 Introducing Social Psychology 2 WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? 4 Health CONNECTIONS How We Think about Ourselves 4 Why College Students Drink How We Think, Feel, and Act in the Social World 6 Less Than You Think They Do 7 How Our Attitudes and Behaviors Shape the Social World 7 HOW HAS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EVOLVED OVER TIME? 8 Behaviorism 8 Gestalt Psychology 9 Historical Events 9 IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REALLY JUST COMMON SENSE? 11 The “I Knew It All Along” Problem 11 Use of Scientific Method 12 Research Focus on Gender: Understanding Gender Differences in Sexual Behavior 13 Emphasis on Critical Thinking 13 HOW IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CONNECTED TO OTHER FIELDS? 15 Links to Fields within Psychology 15 Links to Other Fields 16 Research Focus on Neuroscience: How Rejection Looks in the Brain 17 HOW DOES SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLY ACROSS CULTURES AND SUBCULTURES? 19 Individualistic versus Collectivistic Cultures 19 The Impact of Culture 22 The Impact of Subculture 23 2 Research Methods 28 HOW DO RESEARCHERS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TEST THEIR IDEAS? 30 Media CONNECTIONS Form a Question 30 The Growing Use of Search the Literature 31 Web-based Experiments 32 XXXI sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxii Environment Form a Hypothesis 31 CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Hot Create an Operational Definition 32 Weather 35 Collect and Analyze Data 32 Health Propose and/or Revise a Theory 33 CONNECTIONS Evaluating Abstinence-only WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Sex Education 45 METHODS? 33 Observational/Naturalistic Methods 34 Law CONNECTIONS Self-Report or Survey Methods 37 The Challenges of Studying Drinking and Driving 55 Research Focus on Neuroscience: Facial Movements as a Measure of Discrimination 43 HOW DO YOU CONDUCT EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH? 44 Experimental Methods 44 Internal Validity 46 External Validity 49 What Is the Best Approach? 52 WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL ISSUES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? 53 Review by an Institutional Review Board 53 Provide Informed Consent 54 Protect Confidentiality 55 Provide Debriefing 56 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE RESEARCH FINDINGS? 57 The Impact of Question Order 57 The Impact of Question Wording 58 The Impact of Language 58 3 Self-Perception and Self-Presentation 62 Business HOW DO PERSONAL FACTORS INFLUENCE CONNECTIONS THE SELF-CONCEPT? 64 Does Giving Bonuses Enhance or Undermine Thinking about Your Thoughts 64 Motivation? 72 Focusing on Self-Awareness 66 Media Regulating the Self 67 CONNECTIONS What Happens When Barbies Research Focus on Neuroscience: Different Parts Get Smaller and GI Joes Get of the Brain Make Different Types of Decisions 67 Bigger? 76 Examining Your Behavior 69 Health Research Focus on Gender: Gender Differences CONNECTIONS The Downside of Too Much in Self-Definition 70 Optimism 85 Interpreting Your Motivation 71 XXXII CONTENTS sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxiii HOW DO SOCIAL FACTORS INFLUENCE Law THE SELF-CONCEPT? 74 CONNECTIONS The Impact of Feedback on Social Comparison Theory 74 Eyewitness Confidence 86 The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 77 HOW DO PEOPLE MAINTAIN A POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPT? 80 Self-Serving Biases 80 Self-Serving Beliefs 83 Self-Serving Comparisons 86 Self-Serving Behavior 88 The Downside of Overly Positive Self-Views 89 HOW DO PEOPLE PRESENT THEMSELVES TO OTHERS? 90 Self-Promotion 91 Ingratiation 92 Self-Verification 93 The Good—and Bad—News About Self-Presentation 95 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SELF-PERCEPTION AND SELF-PRESENTATION? 97 Factors Influencing the Self-Concept 97 Self-Perception of Motivation 101 Strategies for Maintaining a Positive Self-Concept 101 Strategies of Self-Presentation 104 4 Social Perception 110 HOW DO WE THINK ABOUT WHY OTHER Health PEOPLE DO WHAT THEY DO? 112 CONNECTIONS The Role of Attributions Attribution Theory 112 in Prejudice Against Obesity 118 Correspondent Inference Theory 113 Covariation Theory 114 Business CONNECTIONS Research Focus on Gender: Gender Differences Why Disserving Attributions in Attribution 116 Can Be a Good Idea 120 WHAT TYPES OF ERRORS DO WE MAKE Law IN THINKING ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE? 117 CONNECTIONS Fundamental Attribution Error 117 The Impact of Salience on Perceived Guilt 124 Actor-observer Effect 119 Education WHY DO WE MAKE ERRORS WHEN CONNECTIONS WE THINK ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE? 122 Why Focusing on Effort Over Salience 122 Ability Is a Good Idea 127 Lack of Cognitive Capacity 124 Beliefs about Others’ Abilities and Motivations 126 Self-Knowledge 127 Final Thoughts on Attribution Errors 128 CONTENTS XXXIII sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxiv HOW DO WE FORM IMPRESSIONS OF PEOPLE BASED ON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR? 128 Communicating in Nonverbal Ways 130 Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Special Processing of Eye Contact 130 Detecting Deception 131 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SOCIAL PERCEPTION? 133 Types of Attributions 134 Factors Influencing Attributions 135 Expression of Emotion 137 5 Social Cognition 144 Law HOW CAN SHORTCUTS LEAD TO ERRORS CONNECTIONS IN THINKING ABOUT THE WORLD? 146 The Power of Reconstructive Memory 158 Intuition 146 Availability 147 Business CONNECTIONS Representativeness 150 The Impact of Mood on Economic Decisions 163 Base-Rate Fallacy 150 Anchoring and Adjustment 151 Health CONNECTIONS Counterfactual Thinking 152 The Power of Belief 165 HOW DOES PRESENTATION INFLUENCE Education HOW WE THINK ABOUT THE WORLD? 155 CONNECTIONS Contrast Effect 156 The Overwhelming Power of Teacher’s Expectations 171 Framing 156 HOW DO WE FORM IMPRESSIONS OF PEOPLE? 159 The Ease of Impression Formation 159 Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Unique Processing of Social Information 160 Beliefs about How Traits Fit Together 162 Research Focus on Gender: The Impact of Gender Stereotypes 162 The Impact of Mood 163 HOW DO BELIEFS CREATE REALITY? 164 People See What They Expect to See 165 People Maintain Beliefs Over Time 168 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SOCIAL COGNITION? 173 Cognitive Errors 173 Beliefs about Traits 174 XXXIV CONTENTS sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxv 6 Attitude Formation and Change 180 HOW DO WE FORM ATTITUDES? 182 Media CONNECTIONS Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Power The Dangerous Impact of Negative Information 182 of Media Images of Smoking and Alcohol Use 188 Classical Conditioning 183 Operant Conditioning 186 Health CONNECTIONS Research Focus on Gender: Gender Differences Using Cognitive Dissonance in Attitudes Toward Politics 186 Can Lead to Changes in Health Behavior 199 Observational Learning/Modeling 186 Environment How Much Do Attitudes Matter? 189 CONNECTIONS Using Cognitive Dissonance WHEN DO ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR? 190 to Increase Water Strength 190 Conservation 201 Accessibility 191 Education CONNECTIONS Specificity 192 Using Self-Affirmation Social Norms 192 Can Increase Academic Achievement 208 Why (and When) Attitudes Do Matter 195 WHEN DOES ENGAGING IN A BEHAVIOR LEAD TO ATTITUDE CHANGE? 195 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 196 Revisions to Dissonance Theory 202 WHAT ARE ALTERNATIVES TO COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY? 206 Self-Perception Theory 206 Impression Management Theory 207 Self-Affirmation Theory 207 Which Theory Is Right? 209 HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE? 209 Attitudes 209 Cognitive Dissonance 210 7 Persuasion 216 HOW DO WE PROCESS PERSUASIVE MESSAGES? 218 Environment CONNECTIONS Routes to Persuasion 218 How Persuasive Messages Increase Recycling 222 Factors That Influence Type of Processing Used 219 Which Route Is More Effective? 222 Law CONNECTIONS WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE PERSUASION? 223 The Benefits of “Stealing the Thunder” 227 Source: Who Delivers the Message? 223 CONTENTS XXXV sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxvi Health Content of the Message 226 CONNECTIONS Why Having Wrinkles Is Audience 229 Worse Than Dying 234 Research Focus on Gender: The Impact of Gender Business on Persuasion 229 CONNECTIONS How Waiters and Waitresses HOW CAN SUBTLE FACTORS INFLUENCE PERSUASION? 232 Can Increase Tips 235 The Impact of Emotional Appeals 232 Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Influence of Emotion in the Ballot Box 236 The Impact of Subliminal Messages 236 HOW CAN YOU RESIST PERSUASION? 238 Forewarning 239 Reactance 239 Inoculation 240 Attitude Importance 240 HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT PERSUASION? 242 Types of Persuasive Messages Used 243 The Effectiveness of Different Persuasive Messages 243 8 Social Influence: Norms, Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience 248 Health HOW DO SOCIAL NORMS INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR? 250 CONNECTIONS Why Misperceiving the The Power of Social Norms 250 Thinness Norm Can Lead to Errors in Perceiving Social Norms 252 Eating Disorders 254 The Pressure to Conform to Social Norms 253 Media CONNECTIONS WHAT FACTORS LEAD TO CONFORMITY? 256 Why Publicizing Suicides Why We Conform 256 May Be a Bad Idea 259 Factors That Increase Conformity 258 Environment CONNECTIONS Research Focus on Gender: Do Women Conform Why Conformity Can More Than Men? 260 Decrease Littering 263 The Power of Minority Influence 262 Law The Benefits of Conformity 263 CONNECTIONS The Impact of Compliance WHAT FACTORS LEAD TO COMPLIANCE? 264 on False Identifications and False Confessions 269 Reciprocity 265 Consistency and Commitment 266 Scarcity 267 The Serious Consequences of Compliance 268 HOW DO SOCIAL PRESSURES INFLUENCE OBEDIENCE? 270 Factors That Increase Obedience 271 Ethical Issues 276 Real-World Examples of Obedience 277 Strategies for Resisting Obedience 280 XXXVI CONTENTS sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxvii HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT SOCIAL INFLUENCE? 281 Conformity 281 Compliance 282 Obedience 284 9 Group Influence: The Impact of Group Processes 288 HOW DO GROUPS INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR? 290 Law CONNECTIONS Social Facilitation 290 The Dynamics of Jury Social Loafing 294 Deliberation 301 Deindividuation 295 Education CONNECTIONS Cohesion 297 The Power of the Jigsaw HOW DOES THE GROUP PROCESS INFLUENCE Classroom 311 DECISION MAKING? 299 Business Group Polarization 299 CONNECTIONS Using Mediation and Groupthink 301 Arbitration to Resolve The Power of Leadership 305 Conflict 313 Research Focus on Gender: How Are Health Women as Leaders? 306 CONNECTIONS Why Not Vaccinating Your HOW DO GROUPS HANDLE CONFLICT? 307 Child Can Be Good for You, but Bad for the Factors Leading to Conflict 307 Community 319 Strategies for Resolving Conflict 310 Conflict Resolution in the Real World 314 HOW DO GROUPS HANDLE SOCIAL DILEMMAS? 315 Types of Social Dilemmas 316 Solutions to Social Dilemmas 318 Research Focus on Neuroscience: How Cooperation Looks in the Brain 321 HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT GROUP INFLUENCE? 323 Social Loafing 323 Conflict 324 Social Dilemmas 325 10 Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 330 HOW DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO Law STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE? 332 CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Cross-Race Social Learning 332 Identification 336 Social Categorization 334 Realistic Group Conflict Theory 337 CONTENTS XXXVII sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxviii Education Social Identity Theory: The Role of Self-Esteem 338 CONNECTIONS Reducing the Effects of Cognitive Biases 340 Stereotype Threats in the Classroom 351 Research Focus on Gender: The Hazardous Impact of Stereotypes on Women’s Achievement in the Health Workplace 344 CONNECTIONS The Impact of Racism on Assessing Stereotypes 345 Physical Health 353 WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING STEREOTYPED? 347 Business Self-fulfilling Prophecy 348 CONNECTIONS Examining the Effects Stereotype Threat 349 of Affirmative Action Reduced Psychological Well-Being 352 Policies 362 Reverse Discrimination 354 The Hazards of Positive Stereotypes 355 IS STEREOTYPING INEVITABLE? 357 Stereotypes Are Activated Automatically 358 Research Focus on Neuroscience: How the Brain Responds to In-Group and Out-Group Faces 358 Stereotypes Are Hard to Suppress 360 Disconfirming Evidence Is Ignored 360 Subtle Discrimination Persists 361 HOW CAN SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE INTERVENTIONS HELP OVERCOME STEREOTYPES? 363 Increase Contact 363 Provide Training and Education 365 Be Motivated to Avoid Stereotyping 366 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPES? 369 Reliance on Cognitive Biases 369 Types of Stereotypes 370 11 Aggression 376 Health HOW DO BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCE CONNECTIONS AGGRESSION? 378 The Link Between Alcohol Use and Aggression 384 Instinct and Evolutionary Theories 378 Genetics 380 Business CONNECTIONS Hormones 382 The Dangers of Sexual Harassment 389 Research Focus on Gender: Explaining Gender Differences in Aggressive Behavior 383 Media CONNECTIONS HOW DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCE The Hazards of Violent AGGRESSION? 385 Pornography 399 Frustration-Aggression Theory 386 Education Cognitive-Neoassociation Theory 389 CONNECTIONS The Problem of Bullying 402 Excitation Transfer Theory 391 XXXVIII CONTENTS sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xxxix Social Learning Theory 392 General Aggression Model 393 HOW DOES THE MEDIA INFLUENCE AGGRESSION? 395 Models Aggression 395 Primes Aggressive Thoughts and Feelings 396 Creates Physiological Arousal 397 Reduces Reactions to Aggression 398 Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Impact of Violent Media on the Brain 398 HOW CAN WE REDUCE AGGRESSION? 400 Punishing Aggressive Behavior 401 Modeling Nonaggressive Responses 401 Training in Communication and Problem-Solving Skills 401 Increasing Empathy 403 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE AGGRESSION? 404 Prevalence of Aggression 404 Prevalence of Domestic Violence 405 Subcultural Differences in Aggression: The Culture of Honor 406 12 Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships 412 WHAT PREDICTS INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION? 414 Law CONNECTIONS Physical Attractiveness 414 Why Beautiful People Spend Research Focus on Gender: How Different Are Men and Less Time in Jail 416 Women in Sex-Related Behaviors? 418 Media Relationship Factors 421 CONNECTIONS Does the Internet Facilitate Situational Factors 422 Intimacy or Inhibit It? 427 Predictors of Attraction in Friendship 425 Health WHAT IS LOVE? 428 CONNECTIONS Passionate-Companionate Love 428 Why We Get By With a Little Help from Our Friends (and Triangular Theory 429 Pets) 432 Love Styles 430 Business CONNECTIONS Why Does Love Matter? 431 The Impact of Culture WHAT PREDICTS RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION? 433 on Workplace Relationships 456 Social Exchange Theory 433 Attachment Styles 436 Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Impact of Attachment Styles on Suppressing Negative Thoughts 438 Positive Illusions 439 Strategies for Increasing Relationship Satisfaction 441 CONTENTS XXXIX sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xl WHAT ARE COMMON PROBLEMS IN CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS? 442 Conflict 442 Jealousy 445 Loneliness 447 Relationship Dissolution 450 HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION AND CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS? 452 Defining Beauty 452 The Nature of Love 453 The Nature of Friendships 455 13 Altruism and Prosocial Behavior 460 Health HOW DO PERSONAL FACTORS CONNECTIONS INFLUENCE HELPING? 462 The Amazing Generosity of Living Organ Donors 465 Evolutionary Factors 462 Research Focus on Gender: Are Men or Women More Education Helpful? 464 CONNECTIONS What Are the Consequences Personality 465 of Requiring Volunteerism? 476 Religion 467 Media HOW DO SITUATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCE HELPING? 468 CONNECTIONS Decision-Making Process Model 468 Does Watching Sesame Street Lead to Prosocial Arousal/Cost-Reward Model 473 Behavior? 479 Mood 476 Law CONNECTIONS Modeling 478 The Impact of Similarity of Race on Guilt 493 Environmental Factors 478 DOES PURE ALTRUISM EXIST? 481 Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis 481 Research Focus on Neuroscience: How Perspective-Taking Looks in the Brain 482 Negative-State Relief Hypothesis 485 Comparing the Models 487 Predicting Long-Term Helping 488 WHO GETS HELP WHEN THEY ARE IN NEED? 489 Person Factors 489 Social Norms 491 Relationship Factors 492 The Downside of Receiving Help 494 XL CONTENTS sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page xli HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE HELPING? 495 Frequency of Helping 496 Norms for Helping 496 Motivations for Helping 498 GLOSSARY 502 REFERENCES 508 NAME INDEX 563 SUBJECT INDEX 579 CONTENTS XLI sande_c01_002-027hr.qxd 16-09-2009 16:47 Page 2 1 Introducing Social WHAT YOU’LL LEARN Did you ever wonder? What is social psychology? If you read a magazine, or watch a news program on television, you’ll learn about How has social psychology evolved over numerous acts of human behavior. Just over time? the last few months, the following stories have been widely reported in the media: Is social psychology really just common sense? A man jumps onto subway tracks to pull a stranger to safety. RESEARCH FOCUS ON GENDER Understanding Gender Differences People stop eating peanut butter, following in Sexual Behavior concern about salmonella. A gunman opens fire in a church, killing four How is social psychology connected to people. other fields? Same-sex couples get married in California. RESEARCH FOCUS ON NEUROSCIENCE How Rejection Looks in the Brain These examples illustrate a range of human behavior, from altruism to reasoning to aggression to love. But what do you really How does social psychology apply learn about these people from these media across s and subcultures? reports? How well do you understand the person who is described in these stories, and what drives his or her behavior? How accurately could you predict this person’s behavior in the future? This chapter will explore these, and other questions, about how we think about people in the social world and 2 sande_c01_002-027hr.qxd 16-09-2009 16:47 Page 3 Health Study Organizer To help you make connections between research in CONNECTIONS social psychology and real-world issues, each chapter will include four Why College Students Connections boxes that illustrate how principles in social psychology Drink Less Than You relate to Education, Law, Health, Business, the Media, or the Think They Do Environment. Psychology the impact of the social world on our attitudes, thoughts, and behavior. In addition, you’ll find out … Why do college students often fail to ask questions during class? Why did many German people stand by and watch as the tragic events of the Holocaust unfolded? Why may eating dinner as a family lead teenagers to have better grades? Why should parents be more worried about car seats than kidnappers? Why do Americans see themselves in terms of their personal traits, Stop/SUPERSTOCK whereas Malaysians see themselves in terms of their group memberships? These questions all address issues that are examined within the field of social psychology. sande_c01_002-027hr.qxd 16-09-2009 16:47 Page 4 P PREVIEW What do these rather different examples—about college students, the Holocaust, family dinners, and parents—have in common? They all describe topics in the real world that are examined by social psychologists—a