Social Influences and Group Processes PDF

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES h ed pu T is After reading this chapter, you would be able to: re R understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed,...

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES h ed pu T is After reading this chapter, you would be able to: re R understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed, examine the influence of group on individual behaviour, bl describe the process of cooperation and competition, E reflect on the importance of social identity, and understand the nature of intergroup conflict and examine conflict resolution strategies. be C o N Introduction Nature and Formation of Groups Groupthink (Box 7.1) Type of Groups The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments (Box 7.2) © Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour Social Loafing Group Polarisation Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience The Autokinetic Effect (Box 7.3) CONTENTS Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment (Box 7.4) Cooperation and Competition Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments (Box 7.5) Determinants of Cooperation and Competition Key Terms Social Identity tt Summary Intergroup Conflict : Nature and Causes Conflict Resolution Strategies Review Questions Project Ideas no Weblinks Pedagogical Hints  Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and classmates; and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends. Introduction In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where you were without your family, school, and friends? How did you feel? Did ed you feel there was something vital missing in your life? Our lives are influenced by the nature of group membership we have. It is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall h try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour. At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others pu T is influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others and the society. The benefits of cooperation and competition and how they re R influence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will also bl see how identity develops — how we come to know ourselves. Similarly, we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examine E the perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolution strategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a harmonious be C and cohesive society. o N family, class and playgroup are examples NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS of groups and are different from other What is a Group? collections of people. A group may be defined as an organised The preceding introduction illustrates the system of two or more individuals, who are © importance of groups in our lives. One interacting and interdependent, who have question that comes to mind is: “How are common motives, have a set of role groups (e.g., your family, class, and the relationships among its members, and have group with which you play) different from norms that regulate the behaviour of its other collections of people?” For example, members. people who have assembled to watch a Groups have the following salient cricket match or your school function are characteristics : at one place, but are not interdependent A social unit consisting of two or more on each other. They do not have defined individuals who perceive themselves tt roles, status and expectations from each as belonging to the group. This other. In the case of your family, class, and characteristic of the group helps in the group with which you play, you distinguishing one group from the will realise that ther e is mutual other and gives the group its unique no interdependence, each member has roles, identity. there are status differentials, and there are A collection of individuals who have expectations from each other. Thus, your common motives and goals. Groups 130 Psychology  function either working towards a given is also a collection of people who may be goal, or away from certain threats present at a place/situation by chance. facing the group. Suppose you are going on the road and an A collection of individuals who are accident takes place. Soon a large number interdependent, i.e. what one is doing of people tend to collect. This is an example may have consequences for others. of a crowd. There is neither any structure Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket nor feeling of belongingness in a crowd. team drops an important catch during Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational a match — this will have consequence and there is no interdependence among ed for the entire team. members. Individuals who are trying to satisfy a Teams are special kinds of groups. need through their joint association Members of teams often have comple- also influence each other. mentary skills and are committed to a A gathering of individuals who interact common goal or purpose. Members are h with one another either directly or mutually accountable for their activities. In pu T indirectly. teams, there is a positive synergy attained is A collection of individuals whose re R through the coordinated efforts of the interactions are structured by a set of members. The main differences between roles and norms. This means that the groups and teams are: bl group members perfor m the same In groups, performance is dependent functions every time the group meets on contributions of individual E and the group members adhere to members. In teams, both individual group norms. Norms tell us how we contributions and teamwork matter. be C ought to behave in the group and In groups, the leader or whoever is specify the behaviours expected from heading the group holds responsibility group members. for the work. However in teams, o N Groups can be differentiated from other although there is a leader, members collections of people. For example, a crowd hold themselves responsible. tt © Picture A Picture B no Fig.7.1 : Look at these Two Pictures Picture A shows a football team — a group in which members interact with one another, have roles and goals. Picture B depicts an audience watching the football match — a mere collection of people who by some coincidence (may be their interest in football) happened to be in the same place at the same time. 131 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes  An audience is also a collection of Satisfaction of one’s psychological people who have assembled for a special and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s purpose, may be to watch a cricket match social and psychological needs such as or a movie. Audiences are generally passive sense of belongingness, giving and but sometimes they go into a frenzy and receiving attention, love, and power become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite through a group. sense of purpose. There is polarisation in Goal achievement : Groups help in attention, and actions of persons are in a achieving such goals which cannot be common direction. Mob behaviour is attained individually. There is power in ed characterised by homogeneity of thought the majority. and behaviour as well as impulsivity. Provide knowledge and information : Group membership provides knowledge Why Do People Join Groups? and information and thus broadens our view. As individuals, we may not have h All of you are members of your family, class and groups with which you interact all the required information. Groups pu T or play. Similarly, other people are also supplement this infor mation and is members of a number of groups at any re R knowledge. given time. Different groups satisfy Group Formation different needs, and therefore, we are bl simultaneously members of different In this section, we will see how groups are E groups. This sometimes creates pressures formed. Basic to group formation is some for us because there may be competing contact and some form of interaction demands and expectations. Most often we between people. This interaction is be C are able to handle these competing facilitated by the following conditions: demands and expectations. People join Proximity : Just think about your groups because these groups satisfy a group of friends. Would you have been o N range of needs. In general, people join friends if you were not living in the groups for the following reasons : same colony, or going to the same Security : When we are alone, we feel school, or may be playing in the same insecure. Groups reduce this playground? Probably your answer © insecurity. Being with people gives a would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions sense of comfort, and protection. As a with the same set of individuals give us result, people feel stronger, and are less a chance to know them, and their vulnerable to threats. interests and attitudes. Common Status : When we are members of a interests, attitudes, and background group that is perceived to be important are important determinants of your by others, we feel recognised and liking for your group members. experience a sense of power. Suppose Similarity : Being exposed to someone your school wins in an inter - over a period of time makes us assess institutional debate competition, you our similarities and paves the way for tt feel proud and think that you are better formation of groups. Why do we like than others. people who are similar? Psychologists Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of have given several explanations for this. no self-worth and establish a positive social One explanation is that people prefer identity. Being a member of prestigious consistency and like relationships that groups enhances one’s self-concept. are consistent. When two people are 132 Psychology  similar, there is consistency and they group, the goal, and how it is to be start liking each other. For example, achieved. People try to know each other you like playing football and another and assess whether they will fit in. person in your class also loves playing There is excitement as well as football; there is a matching of your apprehensions. This stage is called the interests. There are higher chances that forming stage. you may become friends. Another Often, after this stage, there is a stage explanation given by psychologists is of intragroup conflict which is referred that when we meet similar people, they to as storming. In this stage, there is ed reinforce and validate our opinions and conflict among members about how the values, we feel we are right and thus we target of the group is to be achieved, start liking them. Suppose you are of who is to control the group and its the opinion that too much watching of resources, and who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some h television is not good, because it shows too much violence. You meet someone sort of hierarchy of leadership in the pu T who also has similar views. This group develops and a clear vision as to is validates your opinion, and you start re R how to achieve the group goal. liking the person who was instrumental The stor ming stage is followed by in validating your opinion. another stage known as norming. bl Common motives and goals : When Group members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour. This E people have common motives or goals, they get together and form a group leads to development of a positive group which may facilitate their goal identity. be C attainment. Suppose you want to teach The fourth stage is performing. By this children in a slum area who are unable time, the structure of the group has to go to school. You cannot do this evolved and is accepted by group o N alone because you have your own members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some studies and homework. You, therefore, groups, this may be the last stage of form a group of like-minded friends and group development. start teaching these children. So you However, for some groups, for example, © have been able to achieve what you in the case of an organising committee could not have done alone. Stages of Group Formation Identifying Stages of Group Activity Remember that, like everything else in life, Formation 7.1 groups develop. You do not become a group member the moment you come Select 10 members from your class randomly and form a committee to together. Groups usually go through plan an open house. See how they go different stages of formation, conflict, ahead. Give them full autonomy to do tt stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. all the planning. Other members of the Tuckman suggested that groups pass class observe them as they function. through five developmental sequences. Do you see any of these stages These are: forming, storming, norming, emerging? Which were those? What no was the order of stages? Which stages performing and adjourning. were skipped? When group members first meet, there Discuss in the class. is a great deal of uncertainty about the 133 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes  for a school function, there may be Four important elements of group another stage known as adjourning structure are : stage. In this stage, once the function Roles are socially defined expectations is over, the group may be disbanded. that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the However, it must be stated that all typical behaviour that depicts a person groups do not always proceed from one in a given social context. You have the stage to the next in such a systematic role of a son or a daughter and with this manner. Sometimes several stages go on role, there are certain role expectations, ed simultaneously, while in other instances i.e. including the behaviour expected of groups may go back and forth through the someone in a particular role. As a various stages or they may just skip some daughter or a son, you are expected to of the stages. respect elders, listen to them, and be During the process of group formation, responsible towards your studies. h groups also develop a structure. We should Norms are expected standards of pu T remember that group structure develops behaviour and beliefs established, is as members interact. Over time this agreed upon, and enforced by group interaction shows regularities in re R distribution of task to be performed, members. They may be considered as a group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In your bl responsibilities assigned to members, and family, there are norms that guide the the prestige or relative status of members. behaviour of family members. These E Box be C 7.1 Groupthink Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggested that cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions. o N Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns for unanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”. It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions. Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement within a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision © or a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it would undermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shown that such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tends to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order to preserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasingly out-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesive groups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives, and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions at the international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. These decisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to 1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam War tt thinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisions were made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000 American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits. Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: (i) encouraging and rewarding critical no thinking and even disagreement among group members, (ii) encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, (iii) inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions, and (iv) encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others. 134 Psychology  nor ms represent shared ways of some are short-lived (e.g., a committee), viewing the world. some remain together for many years (e.g., Status refers to the relative social r eligious groups), some are highly position given to group members by organised (e.g., army, police, etc.), and others. This relative position or status others are informally organised (e.g., may be either ascribed (given may be spectators of a match). People may belong because of one’s seniority) or achieved to different types of group. Major types of (the person has achieved status groups are enumerated below : because of expertise or hard work). By primary and secondary groups ed being members of the group, we enjoy formal and informal groups the status associated with that group. ingroup and outgroup. All of us, therefor e, strive to be members of such groups which are Primary and Secondary Groups high in status or are viewed favourably h A major difference between primary and by others. Even within a gr oup, secondary groups is that primary groups pu T dif ferent members have dif ferent are pre-existing formations which are is prestige and status. For example, the captain of a cricket team has a higher re R usually given to the individual whereas status compared to the other members, secondary groups are those which the individual joins by choice. Thus, family, bl although all are equally important for the team’s success. caste, and religion are primary groups E Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, whereas membership of a political party is binding, or mutual attraction among an example of a secondary group. In a group members. As the group becomes primary group, there is a face-to-face be C more cohesive, group members start to interaction, members have close physical think, feel and act as a social unit, and proximity, and they share warm emotional less like isolated individuals. Members bonds. Primary groups are central to o N of a highly cohesive group have a individual’s functioning and have a very greater desire to remain in the group in major role in developing values and ideals comparison to those who belong to low of the individual during the early stages of cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to development. In contrast, secondary © the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense groups are those where relationships of belongingness to the group. It is among members are more impersonal, difficult to leave a cohesive group or to indirect, and less frequent. In the primary gain membership of a group which is group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e. highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness members do not have the option to choose however, may sometimes not be in a its membership as compared to secondary group’s interest. Psychologists have groups where it is easy to leave and join identified the phenomenon of another group. groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a Formal and Informal Groups tt consequence of extreme cohesiveness. These groups differ in the degree to which TYPE OF GROUPS the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a no Groups differ in many respects; some have formal group are explicitly stated as in the a large number of members (e.g., a case of an office organisation. The roles to country), some are small (e.g., a family), be performed by group members are stated 135 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes in an explicit manner. The formal and differently and are often perceived negatively informal groups differ on the basis of in comparison to the ingroup members. structure. The formation of formal groups Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect is based on some specific rules or laws and our social lives. These differences can be members have definite roles. There are a easily understood by studying Tajfel’s set of norms which help in establishing experiments given in Box 7.2. order. A university is an example of a Although it is common to make these formal group. On the other hand, the categorisations, it should be appreciated formation of informal groups is not based that these categories are not real and are ed on rules or laws and there is close created by us. In some cultures, plurality relationship among members. is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture which Ingroup and Outgroup is reflected not only in the lives we live, but also in our art, architecture, and music. h Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and pu T differences with respect to what they have Activity is Ingroup and Outgroup and what others have, individuals also re R Distinctions 7.2 compare the group they belong to with Think of any interinstitutional groups of which they are not a member. bl competition held in the near past. Ask The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own your friends to write a paragraph E group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another about your school and its students, group. For ingroup members, we use the and about another school and word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the students of that school. Ask the class be C word ‘they’ is used. By using the words and list the behaviour and characteristics of your schoolmates, they and we, one is categorising people as and students of the other school on similar or different. It has been found that the board. Observe the differences o N persons in the ingroup are generally and discuss in the class. Do you also supposed to be similar, are viewed see similarities? If yes, discuss them favourably, and have desirable traits. too. Members of the outgroup are viewed © Box 7.2 The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments Tajfel and his colleagues were interested in knowing the minimal conditions for intergroup behaviour. ‘Minimal group paradigm’ was developed to answer this question. British school- boys expressed their preference for paintings by two artists — Vassily Kandinsky and Paul Klee. Children were told that it was an experiment on decision-making. They knew the groups in which they were grouped (Kandinsky group and Klee group). The identity of other group members was hidden using code numbers. The children then distributed money between recipients only by code number and group membership. tt Sample distribution matrix : Ingroup member — 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Outgroup member — 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 no You will agree that these groups were created on a flimsy criterion (i.e. preference for paintings by two artists) which had no past history or future. Yet, results showed that children favoured their own group. 136 Psychology  INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL associates who asked group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as BEHAVIOUR possible as they (experimenters) were We have seen that groups are powerful as interested in knowing how much noise they are able to influence the behaviour of people make in social settings. They varied individuals. What is the nature of this the group size; individuals were either influence? What impact does the presence alone, or in groups of two, four and six. of others have on our performance? We will The results of the study showed that discuss two situations : (i) an individual although the total amount of noise rose up, ed per for ming an activity alone in the as size increased, the amount of noise presence of others (social facilitation), produced by each participant dropped. In and (ii) an individual performing an activity other words, each participant put in less along with the others as part of a larger effort as the group size increased. Why does social loafing occur? The explanations h group (social loafing). Since social facilitation has been briefly discussed in offered are: pu T Chapter 6, we would try to understand the Group members feel less responsible for is phenomenon of social loafing in this re R the overall task being performed and section. therefore exert less effort. Motivation of members decreases bl Social Loafing because they r ealise that their contributions will not be evaluated on E Social facilitation research suggests that individual basis. presence of others leads to arousal and can The performance of the group is not to motivate individuals to enhance their be C be compared with other groups. performance if they are already good at There is an improper coordination (or solving something. This enhancement no coordination) among members. occurs when a person’s ef forts ar e o N Belonging to the same group is not individually evaluated. What would happen important for members. It is only an if efforts of an individual in a group are aggregate of individuals. pooled so that you look at the performance of the group as a whole? Do you know Social loafing may be reduced by: © what often happens? It has been found Making the ef forts of each person that individuals work less hard in a group identifiable. than they do when performing alone. This Increasing the pressure to work hard points to a phenomenon referred to as (making group members committed to ‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction successful task performance). in individual effort when working on a Increasing the apparent importance or collective task, i.e. one in which outputs value of a task. are pooled with those of other group Making people feel that their individual members. An example of such a task is the contribution is important. Strengthening group cohesiveness tt game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for you to identify how much force each which increases the motivation for member of the team has been exerting. successful group outcome. Such situations give opportunities to group no Group Polarisation members to relax and become a free rider. This phenomenon has been demonstrated We all know that important decisions are in many experiments by Latane and his taken by groups and not by individuals 137 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes alone. For example, a decision is to be view is validated by the public. This is taken whether a school has to be a sort of bandwagon effect. established in a village. Such a decision When you find people having similar has to be a group decision. We have also views, you are likely to perceive them seen that when groups take decisions, as ingroup. You start identifying with there is a fear that the phenomenon of the group, begin showing conformity, groupthink may sometimes occur (see and as a consequence your views Box 7.1). Groups show another tendency become strengthened. referred to as ‘group polarisation’. It has ed been found that groups are more likely to Assessing Polarisation Activity take extreme decisions than individuals 7.3 alone. Suppose there is an employee who Give the class a short, 5-item attitude has been caught taking bribe or engaging scale developed by your teacher to in some other unethical act. Her/his assess attitudes towards capital h colleagues are asked to decide on what punishment. Based on their responses, pu T punishment s/he should be given. They divide the class into two groups, i.e. is those pro-capital punishment and may let her/him go scot-free or decide to those anti-capital punishment. Now re R terminate her/his services instead of imposing a punishment which may be seat these groups into two different rooms and ask them to discuss a recent bl commensurate with the unethical act s/he case in which death sentence has been had engaged in. Whatever the initial given by the court. See how the E position in the group, this position becomes discussion proceeds in the two groups. After the discussion, re-administer the much stronger as a result of discussions in attitude scale to the group members. be C the group. This strengthening of the group’s Examine if, in both groups, positions initial position as a result of group have hardened in comparison to their interaction and discussion is referred to as initial position as a result of group o N group polarisation. This may sometimes discussion. have dangerous repercussions as groups may take extreme positions, i.e. from very weak to very strong decisions. CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE, AND Why does group polarisation occur? Let © OBEDIENCE us take an example whether capital punishment should be there. Suppose you Groups and individuals exert influence on favour capital punishment for heinous us. This influence may force us to change crimes, what would happen if you were our behaviours in a particular direction. interacting with and discussing this issue The term ‘social influence’ refers to those with like-minded people? After this processes whereby our attitudes and interaction, your views may become behaviours are influenced by the real or stronger. This firm conviction is because of imagined presence of other people. the following three reasons: Throughout the day you may encounter a tt In the company of like-minded people, number of situations where others have you are likely to hear newer arguments tried to influence you and make you think favouring your viewpoints. This will in ways they want. Your parents, teachers, make you more favourable towards friends, radio and television commercials no capital punishment. create one or the other kind of social When you find others also favouring influence. Social influence is a part of our capital punishment, you feel that this life. In some situations, social influence on 138 Psychology us is very strong as a result of which we a norm. For example, a member of a tend to do things which we otherwise community group for ‘clean environment’ would have not done. On other occasions, requests you to put a sticker on your bike we are able to defy influence of others and that reads, ‘Say No to Plastic Bags’. You may even influence them to adopt our own agree to do so, not because of a group viewpoint. This section describes three norm, or even because you personally important group influence processes, i.e. believe in banning plastic bags, but because conformity, compliance and obedience. you see no harm or problem in putting such Imagine the following situation in your a sticker on your bike. At the same time, ed school. Some of your friends come to you you find it easier to say ‘yes’ rather than ‘no’ with a letter of protest against a rule that to such a har mless (and eventually has been recently announced, i.e. banning meaningful) request. Identification, use of mobile phones in the school. according to Kelman, refers to influence h Personally you believe that the rule is very process based on agreement-seeking or sensible and should be enforced. But you identity-seeking. Internalisation, on the pu T also know that if you do not sign the letter, other hand, is a process based on is you will lose many friends and get a bad re R information-seeking. name for not keeping ‘student unity’. What Yet another for m of behaviour is would you do in such a situation? What ‘obedience’. A distinguishing feature of bl do you think most people of your age obedience is that such behaviour is a E would do? If your answer is that you would response to a person in authority. In the agree to sign the letter, you have expressed example given above, you may sign the a for m of social influence called letter more readily if a senior teacher or a be C ‘conformity’ which means behaving student leader asks you to do so. In such according to the group norm, i.e. the a situation, you are not necessarily expectations of other group members. following a group norm but rather carrying o N Persons who do not confor m (called out an instruction or an order. The presence ‘deviants’ or ‘non-conformists’) get noticed of an authority figure immediately makes more than those who do conform. this behaviour different from conformity. Kelman distinguished three forms of For instance, you may stop talking loudly © social influence, viz. compliance, in the classroom when the teacher asks you identification, and internalisation. In to keep quiet, but not when your classmate compliance, there are external conditions tells you to do the same thing. that force the individual to accept the We can see that there are some influence of the significant other. similarities between confor mity, Compliance also refers to behaving in a compliance, and obedience, but there are particular way in response to a request also some differences. All three indicate the made by someone. Thus, in the example influence of others on an individual’s described above, you may sign the letter behaviour. Obedience is the most direct tt with the thought that you were accepting and explicit for m of social influence, the request, not because you agree with whereas compliance is less direct than other students, but because you have been obedience because someone has requested requested to do so by a significant member. and thus you comply (here, the probability no This would be a case of compliance also of refusal is there). Conformity is the most called ‘external/public conformity’. indirect form (you are conforming because Compliance could take place even without you do not want to deviate from the norm). 139 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes Conformity disapproval and obtaining approval from others. Third, the norm is seen as Why do people follow group norms, when reflecting the views and beliefs of the the only ‘punishment’ they may face if they majority. Most people believe that the do not, is the displeasure of the group, or majority is more likely to be right rather being perceived as ‘different’? Why do than wrong. An instance of this is often people conform even when they know that observed in quiz shows on television. When the norm itself is not desirable? a contestant is at a loss for the correct It seems that the tendency to follow a answer to a question, s/he may opt for an ed norm is natural, and does not need any audience opinion, the person most often special explanation. Yet, we need to tends to choose the same option that the understand why such a tendency appears majority of the audience chooses. By the to be natural or spontaneous. First, same reasoning, people conform to the norms represent a set of unwritten and nor m because they believe that the h informal ‘rules’ of behaviour that provide majority must be right. pu T information to members of a group about The pioneering experiments on is what is expected of them in specific conformity were carried out by Sherif and situations. This makes the whole situation re R clearer, and allows both the individual and Asch. They illustrate some of the conditions that determine the extent of bl the group to function more smoothly. conformity, and also methods that may be Second, in general, people feel un- adopted for the study of conformity in E comfortable if they are consider ed groups. These experiments demonstrate ‘different’ from others. Behaving in a way what Sherif called the ‘autokinetic be C that differs from the expected form of effect’ (Box 7.3) and the ‘Asch technique’ behaviour may lead to disapproval or (Box 7.4). dislike by others, which is a form of social What lessons are to be learned from o N punishment. This is something that most the results of these experiments on people fear, often in an imagined way. conformity? The main lesson is that the Recall the question we ask so often: “What degree of conformity among the group will people (‘then’) say?” Following the members is determined by many factors norm is, thus, the simplest way of avoiding which are situation-specific. © Box 7.3 The Autokinetic Effect Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms, and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a darkroom, and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials. After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in tt a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all. The light was only seen as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’). Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the no distance the light moved, but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants were not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgments over trials. 140 Psychology Determinants of Conformity Suppose the subject finds that after some rounds of judgment of the lines, there is (i) Size of the group : Conformity is greater when the group is small than when another participant who starts agreeing the group is large. Why does it happen? It with the subject’s answer. Would the is easier for a deviant member (one who subject now be more likely to conform, or does not conform) to be noticed in a small less likely to do so? When the dissenting group. However, in a large group, if there or deviating minority size increases, the is strong agreement among most of the likelihood of conformity decreases. In fact, it may increase the number of dissenters ed members, this makes the majority stronger, and therefore, the norm is also or non-conformists in the group. stronger. In such a case, the minority (iii) Nature of the task : In Asch’s member(s) would be more likely to conform experiment, the task required an answer because the group pressure would be that could be verified, and could be correct h stronger. or incorrect. Suppose the task involves pu T (ii) Size of the minority : Take the case giving an opinion about some topic. In is of the Asch experiment (see Box 7.4). re R such a case, there is no correct or incorrect Box bl Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment 7.4 E Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a group experiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way, or to give a particular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a be C ‘vision test’. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants were associates of the experimenter, or ‘confederates’ as they are called in social psychology. These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this was not known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line) o N that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B, and C (comparison lines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B, or C, was equal to the standard line. Standard Line Comparison Lines © A B C When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her/his answer. The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The true subject’s turn came last-but-one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of 5 persons giving incorrect answers before her/him. The last person (also a confederate) tt gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons. Even if the true subject felt that these answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her/him. There were twelve trials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did s/he give her/his own judgments ? no It was observed that 67 per cent subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrect answer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were to be given publicly. 141 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes answer. In which situation is there likely members. Conformity may also occur to be more conformity, the first one where because of normative influence, i.e. there is something like a correct or an influence based on a person’s desire to be incorrect answer, or the second one where accepted or admired by others. In such answers can vary widely without any cases, people conform because deviation answer being correct or incorrect? You may from group may lead to rejection or at the have guessed right; conformity would be least, non-acceptance of some form of less likely in the second situation. punishment. It is generally observed that the group majority determines the final ed (iv) Public or private expression of behaviour : In the Asch technique, the decision, but in certain conditions, a group members are asked to give their minority may be more influential. This answers publicly, i.e. all members know occurs when the minority takes a firm and who has given which response. However, uncompromising stand, thereby creating a h there can be other situations (for example, doubt on the correctness of the majority’s viewpoint. This creates a conflict within the pu T voting by secret ballot) in which the group (see Box 7.4). is behaviour of members is private (not known to others). Less conformity is found re R under private expression than it is seen under public expression. Compliance bl It was stated earlier that compliance refers (v) Personality : The conditions described simply to behaving in response to a request E above show how the features of the from another person or group even in the situation are important in determining the absence of a norm. A good example of compliance is the kind of behaviour shown be C degree of conformity shown. We also find that some individuals have a conforming when a salesperson comes to our door. personality. Such persons have a tendency Very often, this person comes with some goods that we really do not wish to buy. o N to change their behaviour according to what others say or do in most situations. Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we By contrast, there are individuals who are find that the salesperson has spoken to us independent, and do not look for a norm for a few minutes and the conversation has in order to decide how to behave in a ended with a purchase of what he or she © specific situation. Research has shown wished to sell. So why do people comply? that highly intelligent people, those who In many situations, this happens are confident of themselves, those who are because it is an easy way out of the strongly committed and have a high self- situation. It is more polite and the other esteem are less likely to conform. party is pleased. In other situations, there Conformity takes place because of could be other factors at work. The informational influence, i.e. influence that following techniques have been found to results from accepting evidence rather work when someone wants another person than reality. This kind of rational to comply. tt conformity can be thought of as learning The foot-in-the-door technique : The about the world from the actions of others. person begins by making a small We learn by observing people, who are the request that the other person is not best source of information about many likely to refuse. Once the other person no social conventions. New group members carries out the request, a bigger request lear n about the group’s customs by is made. Simply because the other observing the actions of other group person has already complied with the 142 Psychology  smaller request, he or she may feel experiment was conducted on pairs. One uncomfortable refusing the second person in each pair was the “learner”, request. For example, someone may whose work was to memorise pairs of come to us on behalf of a group and words. The other participant was the give us a gift (something free), saying “teacher”, who would read these words that it is for pr omotion. Soon aloud and punish the learner when s/he afterwards, another member of the made errors by giving her/him shock. The same group may come to us again, and learner would make errors according to ask us to buy a product made by the prearranged instructions. The teacher was ed group. asked to deliver a shock each time the The deadline technique : In this learner made errors. The teacher was technique, a ‘last date’ is announced further told to increase the strength of the until which a particular product or ‘an shock each time the learner made an error. offer’ will be available. The aim is to In reality, no shocks were given. The h make people ‘hurry’ and make the instructions were so arranged that the pu T purchase before they miss the rare teacher was faced with a dilemma — is opportunity. It is more likely that re R should s/he continue shocks even when people will buy a product under this they wer e increasingly painful? The deadline condition than if there is no experimenter kept on motivating the bl such deadline. teacher to continue. In all, 65 per cent The door-in-the-face technique : In showed total obedience. Some participants, E this technique, you begin with a large however, protested and asked the session request and when this is refused a later to end. Milgram’s study suggests that even be C request for something smaller, the one ordinary people are willing to harm an that was actually desired, is made, innocent person if ordered by someone in which is usually granted by the person. authority. o N Why do people obey even when they Obedience know that their behaviour is harming When compliance is shown to an others? Psychologists have identified instruction or order from a person in several reasons for this. Some of these © authority, such as parents, teachers, reasons are : leaders, or policemen, that behaviour is People obey because they feel that they called obedience. Why people show are not r esponsible for their own obedience is easy to understand. Most actions, they are simply carrying out often it is because if we disobey, some orders from the authority. punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is Authority generally possesses symbols because we believe that persons in of status (e.g., uniform, title) which authority must be obeyed. People in people find difficult to resist. authority have ef fective means for Authority gradually increases enforcing their orders. Milgram conducted commands from lesser to greater levels tt an experiment to show that individuals and initial obedience binds the obey commands from people who are followers for commitment. Once you strangers. The experimenter informed the obey small orders, slowly there is an no respondents in the study that they were escalation of commitment for the participating in an experiment to study the person who is in authority and one effects of punishment on learning. The starts obeying bigger orders. 143 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes  Many times, events are moving at such example, you can come first in a a fast speed, for example in a riot competition only if others do not perform situation, that one has no time to think, to such a level that they can be judged as just obey orders from above. first. A cooperative goal, on the other hand, is one in which each individual can attain the goal only if other members of the group Activity Demonstrating Obedience in also attain the goal. Let us try to 7.4 Daily Life understand this from an example from athletics. In a hundred metres race ed Do you believe the results of Milgram studies on obedience to authority? See between six people, only one can be the for yourself whether obedience occurs winner. Success depends on individual or not. performance. In a relay race, victory Take permission from your teacher depends on the collective performance of to go to one of the junior classes. Go all members of a team. Deutsch h and make a series of requests to the investigated cooperation and competition pu T students. Some examples of such within groups. College students were is requests are : re R Ask students to change their seats assigned to groups of five persons and with another student. were required to solve puzzles and Ask students to croak like a frog. problems. One set of groups, referred to as bl Ask students to say ‘jai hind’. the ‘cooperative group’, were told that they Ask students to put their hands up. would be rewarded collectively for their E (Feel free to add your own ideas) performance. The other set of groups, What did you see? Did students obey you? Ask them why they did so? labelled as ‘competitive group’ were told be C Explain to them that you were studying that there was a reward for individual why we obey seniors. Come back and excellence. Results showed that in discuss what you saw in the class with cooperative groups, there was more your teacher and classmates. o N coordination, there was acceptance for each other’s ideas, and members were more friendly than those in the competitive COOPERATION AND COMPETITION group. The main concern of the members of the cooperative group was to see that the © People interact with each other in different group excels. contexts. Behaviours in most social Although competition between situations are characterised by either individuals within a group may result in ‘cooperation’ or ‘competition’. When groups conflict and disharmony, competition work together to achieve shared goals, we between groups may increase within group refer to it as cooperation. The rewards in cohesion and solidarity. cooperative situations are group rewards Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, which is a and not individual rewards. However, when two person game in which both parties are members try to maximise their own faced with cooperation or competition, and tt benefits and work for the realisation of self- depending upon their choices both can win interest, competition is likely to result. or lose, is often used to study cooperation Social groups may have both competitive or competition. This game is based on an anecdote. Two suspects were quizzed by no as well as cooperative goals. Competitive goals are set in such a way that each detectives separately. The detectives had individual can get her/his goal only if only enough evidence to convict them for others do not attain their goals. For a small offence. Separately the two convicts 144 Psychology  Box Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments : A Journey from Ingroup Formation to 7.5 Intergroup Competition and Finally Intergroup Cooperation Sherif conducted a series of experiments on 11–12 year old boys who did not know each other. The boys were attending a summer camp. Unknown to the boys, there were researchers in the camp who examined their (the boys) behaviour. The experiment consisted of four phases, viz. friendship formation, group formation, intergroup competition, and intergroup cooperation. ed Friendship formation : When the boys arrived at the camp, they spent their initial time together. They mixed freely with each other and chose their friends for games and other activities. Ingroup formation : The boys were then divided into two groups by the experimenter. The boys belonging to the two groups lived separately. Members within the group h engaged in cooperative projects to increase cohesiveness. The groups were given separate names. Over time, they developed their own norms. pu T Intergroup competition : The two groups were brought together in several competitive is situations. Matches were organised in which the groups competed against each other. re R This competition brought in tension and hostility against each other as a group; so much so that the groups started calling each other names. At the same time, ingroup bl cohesion and loyalty became stronger. Intergroup cooperation : To reduce the hostility generated by intergroup competition, E the researchers created a problem which affected both the groups, and both groups wanted to solve them. Superordinate goals could be achieved only through cooperation between the groups. The water supply of both groups was disrupted. Members of both be C groups helped each other to overcome this. This intergroup cooperation phase reduced the hostility. This resulted in the development of a superordinate goal, i.e. a goal to which personal goals were subordinated. o N This research is important as it showed that antagonistic and hostile behaviour can be generated by group situations. At the same time, it shows that hostility between groups can be reduced by focusing on superordinate goals, which are important and beneficial to both groups alike. © were offered a chance to confess. If one Player A confesses and the other does not, the one Cooperation Competition who confesses will get no punishment and Cooperation her/his confession will be used to convict 3 5 the other with a serious offence. If both confess, the punishment to both will be 3 0 mild. If neither confesses, each will receive Player B a light sentence. This game has been used tt in hundreds of experiments to demonstrate 0 2 Competition that when two parties are involved, there is a conflict between motive to cooperate and motive to compete (see Figure 7.2). 5 2 no For example, there are two players, A and B. If both cooperate, both get three points each. If player A competes and wins, Fig.7.2 : Cooperation vs. Competition 145 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes s/he gets 5 points and B gets 0 points. If you are a hard-working, happy-go-lucky B competes and wins s/he gets 5 points girl/boy. This answer tells you about your and A gets 0 points. If both A and B social identity which is one’s self-definition compete, both get two points each. What of who s/he is. This self-definition may outcomes do you expect? Why do you include both personal attributes, e.g. hard expect so? Give reasons. working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes which you share with others, e.g. girl or Determinants of Cooperation and boy. Although some aspects of our identity Competition are determined by physical characteristics, ed What factors determine whether people will we may acquire other aspects as a cooperate or compete? Some of the consequence of our interaction with others important ones are given below: in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves (i) Reward structure : Psychologists as unique individuals and at other times we perceive ourselves as members of groups. h believe that whether people will co- operate or compete will depend on the Both are equally valid expressions of self. pu T reward structure. Cooperative reward Our personal identities derived from views is structure is one in which there is re R of oneself as a unique individual, and social promotive interdependence. Each is identities derived from groups we perceive beneficiary of the reward and reward is ourselves to be members of, are both bl possible only if all contribute. A important to us. The extent to which we E competitive reward structure is one in define ourselves either at personal or at which one can get a reward only if social levels is flexible. From your own others do not get it. experience, you would realise that be C (ii) Interpersonal communication : When identification with social groups can have there is good interpersonal a great deal of importance for your self- communication, then cooperation is the concept. How do you feel when India wins o N likely consequence. Communication a cricket match? You feel elated and proud. facilitates interaction, and discussion. You feel so because of your social identity As a result, group members can as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that convince each other and learn about aspect of our self-concept which is based © each other. on our group membership. Social identity (iii) Reciprocity : Reciprocity means that places us, i.e. tells us what and where we people feel obliged to return what they are in the larger social context, and thus get. Initial cooperation may encourage helps us to locate ourselves in society. You more cooperation. Competition may have a social identity of a student of your provoke more competition. If someone school. Once you have this identity of a helps, you feel like helping that person; student of your school, you internalise the on the other hand, if someone refuses values emphasised in your school and to help you when you need help, you make these values your own. You strive to would not like to help that person also. fulfil the motto of your school. Social tt identity provides members with a shared SOCIAL IDENTITY set of values, beliefs and goals about themselves and about their social world. no Have you ever asked the question “who Once you internalise the values of your am I?” What was your answer to this school, this helps to coordinate and question? Probably your answer was that regulate your attitudes and behaviour. You 146 Psychology work hard for your school to make it the there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict best school in your city/state. When we results. develop a strong identity with our own Another reason for intergroup conflict group, the categorisation as ingroup and is relative deprivation. It arises when outgroup becomes salient. The group with members of a gr oup compare which you identify yourself becomes the themselves with members of another ingroup and others become the outgroup. group, and perceive that they do not The negative aspect of this own group and have what they desire to have, which outgroup categorisation is that we start the other group has. In other words, ed showing favouritism towards our ingroup by they feel that they are not doing well in rating it more favourably in comparison to comparison to other groups. This may the outgroup, and begin devaluating the lead to feelings of deprivation and outgroup. This devaluation of the outgroup discontentment, which may trigger off is the basis of a number of intergroup conflict. h conflicts. Another cause of conflict is one party’s pu T belief that it is better than the other, is and what it is saying should be done. INTERGROUP CONFLICT : NATURE re R AND When this does not happen, both CAUSES parties start accusing each other. One bl Conflict is a process in which either an may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller dif ferences, E individual or a group perceives that others (individual or gr oup) have opposing thereby conflict gets escalated because interests, and both try to contradict each every member wants to respect the be C other. There is this intense feeling of ‘we’ norms of her/his group. and ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’). A feeling that the other group does not There is also a belief by both parties that respect the norms of my group, and o N the other will protect only its own interests; actually violates those norms because their (the other side’s) interests will, of a malevolent intent. therefore, not be protected. There is not Desire for retaliation for some harm only opposition of each other, but they also done in the past could be another reason for conflict. © try to exert power on each other. Groups have been found to be more aggressive Biased perceptions are at the root of than individuals. This often leads to most conflicts. As already mentioned escalation of conflict. All conflicts are costly earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to as there is a human price for them. In biased perceptions. wars, there are both victories and defeats, Research has shown that when acting but the human cost of war is far beyond in groups, people are more competitive all this. Various types of conflict are as well as more aggressive than when commonly seen in society, which turn out they are on their own. Groups compete to be costly for both sides as well as for over scarce resources, both material tt society. resources, e.g. territory, and money as Mentioned below are some of the major well as social resources, e.g. respect reasons for group conflicts. and esteem. Perceived inequity is another reason for no One major r eason is lack of communication and faulty communi- conflict. Equity refers to distribution of cation by both parties. This kind of rewards in proportion to an individual’s communication leads to suspicion, i.e. contributions, if: 147 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes  Your friends’ Communication between the groups Your rewards rewards becomes poor. The groups do not trust = each other, thereby leading to a Your contributions Your friends’ breakdown in communication and this contributions generates suspicion for each other. Groups start magnifying their But, if you contribute more and get differences and start perceiving their less, you are likely to feel irritated and behaviour as fair and the other’s exploited. behaviour as unfair. ed Conflicts between groups give impetus Each side tries to increase its own to a series of social and cognitive processes. power and legitimacy. As a conse- These processes harden the stand of each quence, the conflict gets escalated side leading to ingroup polarisation. This shifting from few specific issues to may result in coalition formation of like- h much larger issues. minded parties, thereby increasing the Once conflict starts, several other pu T apprehensions of both parties resulting in factors lead to escalation of conflict. is misperceptions, and biased interpretations re R Hardening of ingroup opinion, explicit and attributions. The result is increased threats directed at the outgroup, each conflict. Present-day society is fraught with group retaliating more and more, and bl various intergroup conflicts. These are other parties also choosing to take sides related to caste, class, religion, region, E lead to escalation of conflict. language, just to name a few of them. Gardner Murphy wrote a book entitled be C ‘In the Minds of Men’. Most conflicts begin CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES in the minds of men and then go to the field. Explanations of such conflicts can be at the Conflicts can be reduced if we know about their causes. The processes that increase o N structural, group, and individual levels. Structural conditions include high rates of conflict can be turned around to reduce it poverty, economic and social stratification, also. A number of strategies have been inequality, limited political and social suggested by psychologists. Some of these opportunity, etc. Research on group level are : © factors has shown that social identity, Introduction of superordinate goals : realistic conflict between groups over Sherif’s study, already mentioned in the resources, and unequal power relations section on cooperation and competition, between groups lead to escalation of showed that by introducing superordinate conflict. At the individual level, beliefs, goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. biased attitudes, and personality A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial characteristics are important determinants. to both parties, hence both groups work It has been found that at the individual cooperatively. level, there is a progression along a tt continuum of violence. Very small acts that Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also initially may have no significance, like be reduced by altering perceptions and calling the other group a name, may lead reactions through persuasion, educational to psychological changes that make further and media appeals, and portrayal of groups no destructive actions possible. differently in society. Promoting empathy Deutsch identified the following for others should be taught to everyone consequences of intergroup conflict. right from the beginning. 148 Psychology Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict there is a conflict. Sometimes it is difficult can also be reduced by increasing contacts to dissipate conflict through negotiations; between the groups. This can be done by at that time mediation and arbitration by involving groups in conflict on neutral a third party is needed. Mediators help grounds through community projects and both parties to focus their discussions on events. The idea is to bring them together the relevant issues and reach a voluntary so that they become more appreciative of agreement. In arbitration, the third party each other’s stand. However, for contacts has the authority to give a decision after to be successful, they need to be hearing both parties. ed maintained, which means that they should be supported over a period of time. Structural solutions : Conflict can also be reduced by redistributing the societal Redrawing group boundaries : Another resources according to principles based on technique that has been suggested by justice. Research on justice has identified h some psychologists is redrawing the group several principles of justice. Some of these pu T boundaries. This can be done by creating are : equality (allocating equally to every is conditions where groups boundaries are one), need (allocating on the basis of redefined and groups come to perceive re R themselves as belonging to a common group. needs), and equity (allocating on the basis of contributions of members). bl Negotiations : Conflict can also be Respect for other group’s norms : In a E resolved through negotiations and third pluralist society like India, it is necessary party interventions. Warring groups can to respect and be sensitive to the strong norms of various social and ethnic groups. be C resolve conflict by trying to find mutually acceptable solutions. This r equires It has been noticed that a number of understanding and trust. Negotiation refers communal riots between different groups have taken place because of such o N to reciprocal communications so as to reach an agreement in situations in which insensitivity. Key Terms © Arbitration, Cohesiveness, Competition, Compliance, Conflict, Conformity, Cooperation, Goal achievement, Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Intergroup, Negotiation, Norms, Obedience, Outgroup, Proximity, Roles, Social facilitation, Social influence, Social inhibition, Social loafing, Status, Structure, Superordinate goals. Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles, status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups. Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals. tt People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge and information. Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation. no Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur. Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and ingroup and outgroup. 149 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes  Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are two important influences of groups. Conformity, compliance, and obedience are three important forms of social influence. Conformity is the most indirect form of social influence; obedience the most direct form; compliance is in-between the two. People interact in social situations by either cooperating or competing. One’s self-definition of who s/he is referred to as social identity. Group conflicts occur in all societies. Group conflicts can be reduced if we know the causes of such conflicts. ed Review Questions 1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups. 2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that h group. pu T 3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups? is 4. How do groups influence our behaviour? re R 5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social loafing in school. How did you overcome it? 6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of bl conformity? 7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming E others? Explain. 8. What are the benefits of cooperation? 9. How is one’s identity formed? be C 10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict. Reflect on the human price of this conflict. o N Project 1. “S/he who does not ask will never get a bargain.” Collect the newspapers of last one Ideas month. List the different bargains that were offered by shopkeepers. What compliance techniques were used by them? Ask your friends how many were attracted by these © bargains. 2. Make a list of different conflicts that have occurred among different houses in the school. How were these conflicts resolved? 3. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapers of that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian and rival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments? 4. Imagine that you have to collect money to help an NGO working for the girl child. What techniques of social influence would you use? Try any two techniques and see the difference. tt Weblinks no http://www.mapnp.org/library/grp_skill/theory/theory.htm http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm http://www.stanleymilgram.com/main.htm http://www.psychclassics.yorku.ca/sheriff/chap1.htm 150 Psychology  Pedagogical Hints 1. In the topic of nature and formation of groups, students should be made to understand the importance of groups in real-life. Here, it needs to be emphasised that they should be car eful in choosing groups. Teachers can ask a few students ed how they have become members of different groups, and what do they get from membership in these groups. 2. For explaining social loafing, simple h experiments can be conducted in the class by asking students to pu T perform some activities in groups is and then asking them about their contributions in the activities re Rundertaken. Learning experience bl for students should be on ways to avoid social loafing. E 3. In the topic of cooperation and competition, students should be told the benefits of both cooperation be C and competition. They should be able to appreciate that cooperation is a better strategy in society. Some cases of real-life where cooperative o N efforts have been successful can be discussed. 4. Students should be able to appr eciate that identities are important and how our identities © influence our social behaviour. 5. In the section on intergroup conflict, emphasis should be on conflict resolution strategies rather than conflict per se. tt no 151 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes