SOC.223. Classical Sociological Thinkers. Unit 1.pdf

SOC223 Classical Sociological Thinkers Unit-1: August Comte (1798-1857) Law of Hierarchy three Positivism of science stages  Introduction: In France, the 19th Century was an unsettling time for the nation’s inte...

SOC223 Classical Sociological Thinkers Unit-1: August Comte (1798-1857) Law of Hierarchy three Positivism of science stages  Introduction: In France, the 19th Century was an unsettling time for the nation’s intellectuals. French monarchy had been deposed in the revolution of 1789. Philosophers and intellectuals were finding the ways out to improve the society. August Comte is considered as the most influential philosopher of the early 1800s. He believed that in order to improve society the theoretical science of society should be developed and a systematic investigation of behavior should be carried.  Introduction: He coined the term sociology to apply to the science of human behaviors. The term Sociology has been derived from Latin word ‘socious’ means ‘society’ and Greek word ‘logus’ means ‘science’. Comte hoped that the systematic study of social behavior would eventually lead to more rational human interactions. In Comte’s hierarchy of the Sciences, Sociology was at the top.  Introduction: Many of Comte’s ideas were important in their time and had a significant impact on the development of sociology and sociological theory. Auguste Comte was born in Montpelier, France, on January 19, 1798. Comte had originally used the term 'social physics' to describe the new field, but some of his intellectual rivals at the time were also using that term. August Comte Comte wanted to distinguish his own ideas from theirs, so he coined the term 'sociology‘. Comte sought to create a science of society that could explain the laws of the social world just as natural science explained the functioning of the physical world. Comte's vision for sociology was for it to become a 'positive science'. Contd. He wanted sociology to apply the same rigorous scientific methods to the study of society that physicists and chemists use to study the physical world. Positivism holds that science should be concerned only with observable entities that are known directly to experience. By understanding the causal relationships between events, scientists can then predict how future events will occur. Contd. A positivist approach to sociology aims for the production of knowledge about society - based on empirical evidence drawn from observation, comparison and experimentation. Comte's law of three stages claims that human efforts to understand the world have passed through theological, metaphysical and positive stages. In the theological stage, thinking was guided by religious ideas and the belief that society was an expression of God's will. Comte contd. Metaphysical stage, - society came to be seen in natural, not supernatural, terms. The positive stage, encouraged the application of scientific techniques to the social world. So, Comte regarded sociology as the last science to develop - following on from physics, chemistry and biology - but also as the most significant and complex of all the sciences. Positivism  Positive science  Influence of Physics and Biological Sciences  Scientific Method  Observation  Social Phenomena  Positivism: the search for invariant laws Comte is remembered to this day in sociology for his championing of positivism. Although this term has a multitude of meanings, it is usually used to mean the search for invariant laws of both the natural and the social world. In Comte’s version of positivism, these laws can be derived from doing research on the social world and/or from theorizing about that world...  Comte’s thinking is premised on the idea that there is a real world (e.g., biological, sociological) out there and that it is the task of the scientist to discover and report on it. Because of this view, Comte is also known as a realist. There are two basic ways of getting at the real world that exists out there—doing research and theorizing. Although Comte recognized the importance of research, he emphasized the need for theory and speculation.  Criticisms Although many contemporary sociologists think of themselves as positivists, positivism has come under severe attack in recent years. Considerable work in the philosophy of science has cast doubt on whether positivism fits the natural sciences? This tends to raise even greater doubts about the possibility of positivistic sociology!  Contd. Some sociologists never accepted a positivist approach, and others who did have either totally abandoned it or adopted a modified positivist perspective. Positivism has not disappeared from sociology, but it seems clear that sociology now finds itself in a postpositivist age. Comte developed a hierarchy of the positivistic sciences—mathematics, astronomy, physics, biology (physiology), chemistry, and at the top (at least in his early work) sociology.  Introductions Principles of Knowledge Making System Natural Sciences Methodology Objective vs. Subjective System Theory in Sociology Human Behaviour  Introductions: hierarchy & growth of various disciplines Science grew over time Simple and general in nature Complex and specific Depends → developments of their predecessors Introductions: hierarchy & growth of various disciplines How did you decide for studying sociology?  Introductions: hierarchy & growth of various disciplines Bio-science Physics Sociology Chemistry Physiology ? Medicine Natural Social Science Science  Law of Three Stages Theological: Metaphysical: Scientific: Stage Stage-I Stage II III FETISHISM IMPERSONAL RESEARCH METHOD MONOTHEISM NATURE DATA and FACTS Explanation are based POLYTHEISM ABSTRACT on: OBSERVATION, EXPERIMENTS, POWER COMPARISON  Theological stages: – the first and it characterised the world prior to 1300 – all natural phenomena and social events were explained in terms of super natural forces – dominated by priests and ruled by military men – Human mind is dominated by sentiments, feelings and emotions – Religion dominates in this state of development  Sub-types: 1. Fetishism: – fetish’ means inanimate and ‘ism’ means philosophy – believes that super natural power dwells in inanimate object – these objects are believed to possess divine power – but too many fetishes created confusion for people. – hence they started believing in several god – arose polytheism 2. Polytheism: – belief in many Gods is called polytheism – Human being received variety or diversity of natural phenomena – One God was believed to be in charge of one particular natural phenomenon – created the class of priests to get the goodwill and the blessings of these gods – too many gods also created for them mental contradictions – Finally, developed the idea of one God, i.e. monotheism 3. Monotheism – belief in one single God – climax of the theological stage of thinking – symbolizes the victory of human intellect and reason over non-intellectual and irrational thinking – Slowly feelings and imaginations started giving place to thinking and rationality – a simplification of many gods into one God takes place, largely in the service of awakening reason, – which qualifies and exercises constraint upon the imagination Theological stage:  Soldiers, kings, priests etc. were given respect in the society.  Everything was considered in terms of family welfare  social organisation is predominantly of a military nature  It is the military power which provides the basis of social stability and conquest which enlarges the bounds of social life Contd.  Metaphysical phase Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world started about 1300 A.D- was short lived almost an extension of theological thinking transitional phase -roughly to the middle Ages and Renaissance mind pre-supposes abstract forces Supernatural being is replaced by supernatural force. This is in form of essences, ideas and forms. Rationalism started growing instead of imagination  contd. Rationalism states that God does not stand directly behind every phenomenon Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God. Speculative thought is unchecked by any other principle. Human body was considered to be the spark of divinity This kind of thinking corresponded with the legal type of society; and law, lawyers and churchmen dominated the society Law remained under the control of the state  The Positive or Scientific stage Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic stage Represents the scientific way of thinking Positive thought ushers in an industrial age knowledge is based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation- observation predominates over imagination Human mind tries to establish cause and affect relationship Mind is actually in search of final and ultimate cause  The Positive. Cond. The scientific thinking is thoroughly rational and there is no place for any belief or superstition in it governed by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides dominated by the entrepreneurs, technologists etc. The new system is built upon the destruction of the old; with evolution, come progress and emancipation of human mind For Comte, all knowledge is inescapably human knowledge; a systematic ordering of propositions concerning our human experience of the world  Comte… Comte identified two major types of societies The theological-military society which was dying, the scientific-industrial society which was being born during his life time the transformation of the material resources of the earth for human benefit and the production of material inventions In this positive or scientific stage the great thought blends itself with great power  Criticisms on Law of three stages  Comte failed to postulate a fourth mode of thinking, i.e. socialized thinking, a system of thought which would emphasize the purpose of building the constructive, just and harmonious societies  Comte’s law of three stages could not stand the test of facts, that is “neither the approaches- metaphysical and scientific- wholly supersedes the religious approach; rather there has been accumulation and often admixture of the three”  Introductions: evolution of early society & rationality behind the progress of society The laws of social organization and change, Comte felt, will be- Discovered Refined Verified; through a constant interplay between theory and empirical observation  Introductions: evolution of early society & rationality behind the progress of society Comte advocated four methods in the new science of social physics: (1)Observation (2)Experimentation (3)Comparison (4)Historical analysis  Methods for sociology Comte identified three basic methods for sociology—three basic ways of doing social research in order to gain empirical knowledge of the real social world. - The first is observation. To him, observations should be directed by some theory, and when made, they should be connected to some law. - Second of Comte’s methods is the experiment, but this method is better suited to the other sciences than it is to sociology. Finally, comparison, which Comte divided into three subtypes. - First, we can compare humans to lower animal societies. - Second, we can compare societies in different parts of the world. - Third, we can compare the different stages of societies over time. Comte found this last subtype particularly important. - Fourth major methodology—historical research. Evolution of early society & rationality behind the progress of society Sociology should be used to rebuild social structures, but these applications of sociology must be guided by theory rather than by ideologies and personal biases Society is a system whose parts are interconnected in ways having consequences for the maintenance of the social whole  Hierarchy of Sciences Second best known theory of Comte – Hierarchy of sciences (classification of sciences) Connected with law of three stages (human progresses only through determinant stages) Each successive stage building on the accomplishments of its predecessors; so scientific knowledge passes through similar stages of development. different sciences progress at different rates  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. thinkers have tried to classify knowledge on one or the other basis. E.g. Early Greek thinkers had made a tripartite classification of knowledge: Physics, Ethics and Politics Bacon made the classification on the basis of the faculties of man namely memory, imagination and reason The Science which was based upon memory is called History, imagination is poetry and reason is Physics, Chemistry etc.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Comte classified knowledge on the basis of observation of scientific or positive level of human thinking. Comte’s classification- is to prepare the background and basis for the study of society, So, Sociology, a science invented by him. On this also he determined the methodology of sociology.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Comte thought that each Science came into being not arbitrarily It has come to seek the “Laws” of a particular kind or level of facts which man had encountered in his experience of the world. Each Science is concerned with some definite event or subject matter and these constitute the subject of its study.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Comte spoke of sociology is the “crowning edifice” of the hierarchy of sciences. did not mean that it is in any sense superior to any other science; but only that it serves to bring all other sciences into relationship with each other, in the overall intellectual history of man  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. According to him, Astronomy, the most general and simple of all natural sciences develops first. It is followed by physics, chemistry, biology and finally sociology. Each science in this series depends for its emergence on the prior developments of its predecessors in a hierarchy marked by the law of increasing complexity and decreasing generality.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. behind and before all these sciences however lies the great science of mathematics—the most powerful instrument the mind can employ in the investigation of natural law. The Science of mathematics must be divided into abstract mathematics or the calculus, and concrete mathematics embracing general geometry and rational mathematics. So we have thus really six great sciences.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. The classification of sciences follows the order of development of the sciences It indicates their social relation and relative perfection. In order to reach effective knowledge the sciences must be studied in the order named Sociology cannot be understood without knowledge of the anterior (earlier) sciences. Hierarchy of Sciences contd.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Comte arranged the sciences so that each category may be grounded on the principal laws of the preceding category and serve as a basis for the next ensuing category The order hence, is one of increasing complexity and decreasing generality The most simple phenomena must be the most general – general in the sense of being everywhere present In the hierarchy, Comte places mathematics on the lowest rung and the topmost rung is occupied by Sociology  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. It was possible to arrange the Sciences systematically in a way which coincided with: i) The order of their historical emergence and development. Sciences have developed in course of history ii) The order of their dependence upon each other. A science cannot develop without dependence upon each other. iii) Their decreasing degree of generality and the increasing degree of complexity of their subject matter  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. iv) The increasing degree of modifiability of the facts which they study Sociology deals with social phenomenon which undergoes constant modification In establishing the hierarchy of sciences, Comte also distinguished the methodological characteristics of the various disciplines.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Mathematics: How it is different from other sciences? may be defined briefly as the indirect measurement of magnitudes and the determination of magnitudes by each other concrete mathematics to discover the equations of phenomena; abstract mathematics to reduce results from the equations  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Astronomy: science by which we discover the laws of the geometrical and mechanical phenomena presented by heavenly bodies use our sense of sight and our reasoning power, the reasoning bears a great proportion to observation here than in any other science Not only sight but also the measurement of angles and computations of times  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Physics: the study of the laws which regulate the general properties of bodies regarded en masse, their molecules remaining unaltered and usually in a state of aggregation In the observations of physics all the senses are employed and mathematical analysis and experiment assist observation.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. In the phenomena of astronomy human intervention was impossible. In the phenomena of physics man begins to modify natural phenomena Physics includes the sub-divisions: statics, dynamics, thermo-logy, optics and electro logy.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Chemistry: the study of the laws of the phenomena of composition and decomposition which result from the molecular and specific mutual action of different substances, natural or artificial the senses are still more employed, and experiment is still more utility  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Biology: The physiology of plants and animals is studied under Biology. Physiology - study of the laws of organic dynamics in relation to structure and environment.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Sociology: each science depends for its emergence on the prior developments of its predecessors by the law of increasing complexity and decreasing generality. The Social Sciences, the most complex and the most dependent for their emergence on the development of all the others, are the “highest” in the hierarchy. “Social Science offers the attributes of a completion of the positive method.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Although sociology has special methodological characteristics that distinguish it from its predecessors in the hierarchy; it is also dependent upon them. it is especially dependent on biology, the science that stands nearest to it in the hierarchy What distinguishes biology from all other natural sciences is its holistic character.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. But why biology and not other sciences? Unlike physics and chemistry, which proceed by isolating elements, biology proceeds from the study of organic wholes. And it is this emphasis on organic or organism unity that sociology has in common with biology The only proper approach in Sociology consists in “viewing each element in the light of the whole system.”  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Man and society as a whole is being better known to us, than the parts which constitute them. Just as biology cannot explain an organ or a function apart from the organism as a whole, sociology cannot explain social phenomena without reference to the total social context.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. Comte developed social physics or what in 1839 he called sociology. the use of the term Social physics made it clear that Comte sought to model sociology after the hard sciences. This new science which in his view would ultimately become the dominant science was to be concerned with both social statics (existing social structure) and Social Dynamics (social change). Although both involved the search for laws of social life.  Hierarchy of Sciences contd. According to Comte, the social organic science is sociology. It is relatively new science. Being young it has not yet attended the status of a full- fledged science. Sociology is still a growing and developing science. However; it is quite clear that sociology is gradually moving towards the goal of a definite science.  Social statics & social dynamics Social order and social progress Comte divided sociology into two major parts, namely, static and dynamic sociology. The idea of this division is borrowed from biology, which is in keeping with his notions of a hierarchy of sciences. Static sociology studies- the conditions of the existence of society, while the dynamic sociology studies the continuous movement or laws of the succession of individual stages in society. Former studies the social order and the second social changes or progress in societies.  Social statics & social dynamics Dynamics is a theory of social progress, which explain the fundamental development or evolution of society. Order and progress, are closely interlinked because there cannot be any social order if it is not compatible with progress; While no real progress can occur in society if it is not consolidated in order.  Social statics & social dynamics Social order and social progress For Comte, social progress is valued than social order Considered progress as: – social elements – has definite roles – Goals: attainment of scientific and positive stage of human thinking – to study the laws of succession of social phenomena  Social dynamics contd. Society is always changing but change is ordered and subject to social laws Social Dynamics is a science which tries to discover the laws and principles underlying social change and progress It also tries to find out the conditions necessary to maintain the continuity of social progress  Social dynamics and their types Three types of social progress: 1) Physical progress 2) Intellectual progress 3) Moral progress  Physical progress By physical progress we mean the progress in outward living conditions – E.g. like housing, agricultural and industrial production etc. Physical progress provides base for social progress It is the most fundamental progress of mankind In its absence no other kind of progress is possible Physical progress is the first step in the ladder of social progress  Intellectual progress the processes of social cohesion and social disintegration; also the forces which lead to social disruption and disorder Comte believed that if our intellect can be made to accept the importance of social cohesion, our selfish feelings will automatically turn into altruistic desires The increase in feeling of altruism would in turn lead to great strides in social progress Moral progress In his book, “Positive Polity”, Comte attached great importance to moral progress He regarded the feeling element to be of higher value than the intellectual element gave more importance to morality in comparison with intellect. Comte regard morality to be the highest aim of man’s development He gave the name of Religion of Humanity to this new look  Social dynamics and social order So, if there is an essential order of all societies, dynamics must be subordinated to statics. By starting from the anatomy of every human society, we shall understand what history is. Then instead of the terms statics and dynamics, it will be better to use the terms order and progress. “Progress is the development of order”.  Social Statics is the study of the consensus. It leads us to ask what the essential organs of every society are. It begins as a simple positive analysis of anatomy of various societies, of the bonds of mutual solidarity among the institutions of a particular collectively with the analysis of the essential order of every human collectively.  Social Dynamics consists merely of the description of the successive stages through which human societies pass. It will retrace the successive and necessary stages of the development of the human mind and of human societies. As social statics has revealed the essential order of every human society, social dynamics will, ultimately retrace the vicissitudes (variations) through which this fundamental order has passed before arriving at the final goal of positivism.