SOCI2000 Lecture Notes on Race, Racism & Classical Sociological Theorizing PDF

Race, Racism & Classical Sociological Theorizing CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY (SOCI2000) RASHALEE M. MITCHELL LECTURER Music Video Video # 2- Racial Injustice Video-Beckles on Race & Reparations Video- Origins of Race in the Americas White supremacy & race  “White supremacy is the unnamed politi...

Race, Racism & Classical Sociological Theorizing CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY (SOCI2000) RASHALEE M. MITCHELL LECTURER Music Video Video # 2- Racial Injustice Video-Beckles on Race & Reparations Video- Origins of Race in the Americas White supremacy & race  “White supremacy is the unnamed political system that has made the modern world what it is today….there will be no mention of the basic political systems that has shaped the world for the past several hundred years, and this omission is not accidental. Rather it reflects the fact the standard textbook and courses have for the most part been written and designed by whites, who take their racial privilege so much for granted that they do not even see it as political, as a form of domination,” (Mills, 1997, pg.1). Racial contract  “The racial contract is an exploitation contract that creates global European economic domination and national white racial privilege,” (Mills, 1997, pg. 31).  “There are other benefits accruing from the Racial Contract – far greater political influence, cultural hegemony, the psychic payoff that comes from knowing one is a member of the Herrenvolk (what WEB Du Bois once called “the wages of whiteness”) –but the bottom line is material advantage. Globally, the racial contract creates Europe as the continent that dominates the world; locally, within Europe and the other continents, it designates Europeans as the privileged race,” (Mills, 1997, pg.33). Race & Racism  Race and racism continue to be highly charged, culturally controversial issues, notwithstanding, the gains achieved in various forms of racial equality.   It is many things; multidimensional  Race is socially constructed  Its meanings change through history and across diverse socio-political contexts What Is  It is relational; always understood in relation to group differences Race?  Symbolizes body color differences  Symbolizes sociopolitical conflicts  It is a marker of inequality   The reduction of social identities to racial categories  Using racial category differences to unjustly What Is allocate socially valued resources  Using social structures and institutional Racism? practices to reproduce race-based inequalities in access to resources  When the racial Other is defined as a problem and/or as a victim  Edward Said Colonialism’s creation of Otherness Racial Representation of difference; accentuation of difference and demarcation of inferiority Otherness All distinctions have histories; emerge from particular political and cultural contexts All distinctions, all categorizations, are power- laden Phenomenology Frantz Fanon of Blackness Blackness (and any minority cultural identity) experienced as a battered down identity Everyday, lived racism Increased vulnerability to confirming one’s social inferiority *Zong Ship Massacre  The Zong left Accra (now Ghana) in August of 1781, with 442 enslaved Africans and bound for the colonial plantations of Jamaica.  It was common during the Middle Passage to overcrowd the ships with enslaved people and the Zong was no different. It was unacceptably overcrowded, with more than double the carrying capacity of the ship to make for a safe journey. *Zong Ship Massacre cont’d  The ship ran low on water and due to a longer than anticipated time travelling there was a decision taken by the crew to relieve the ship of the enslaved people who they styled as ‘cargo’ in order to ensure the safe delivery of the rest, a loss for which the shipping company could be compensated under British law.  Over the course of several days, the crew threw at least 122 Africans overboard. The Zong arrived in Black River, Jamaica with 208 enslaved people on board. *Zong Ship Massacre cont’d  The Zong massacre and the subsequent trials were the precursors to strengthening the Slavery Abolishment movement and towards Emancipation about 50 years later  https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/zong-slave-ship-trial Video on the Zong Ship Massacre Brutality of the institution of slavery in Jamaica,  “ A team of historians (Burnard, Panza, and Williamson 2017) recently concluded that during the late eighteenth century Jamaica was markedly different from other British colonies and seems to have been the most unequal place on the planet; the ratio of the estimated income of the top 10 percent of slaveholders to the income owned by slave was approximately 536 reflecting a staggering gap between masters and slaves- comparable figure in the American South was 16.” Their analysis confirmed that the island had the highest cost of living in the eighteenth century for all places in the world for which evidence exists, and noted the especially brutal nature of slavery on the island….Jamaican slaves lived at the bare edge of subsistence even in good times. Slaves were worked excessively had and lived short lives,” (Patterson 2019, pg.42-43). *Marcus Garvey- Jamaican activist  1887- 1940  A Jamaica National Hero  In 1914 he started the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), in Jamaica. The UNIA, which grew into an international organisation, encouraged self-government for black people worldwide; self-help economic projects and protest against racial discrimination.  He became an inspirational figure for later civil rights activists. *Marcus Garvey- Jamaican activist  Preached his doctrine of freedom to the oppressed blacks throughout the USA  Garvey’s legacy can be summed up in the philosophy he taught – race pride, the need for African unity; self-reliance; the need for black people to be organised and for rulers to govern on behalf of the working classes.  https://jis.gov.jm/information/heroes/marcus-mosiah-garvey/  https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/garvey_marcus.shtml  Black  Collective recovery of a shared racial past, a shared history Identity  Simultaneous collective pursuit of equality with whites Politics o The simultaneous affirmation of (historical and cultural) racial difference and of an egalitarian racial sameness Racial Whiteness  White people are also colored  White people also live racially structured lives  Whiteness as everyday privilege  Like blackness, whiteness too emerges out of particular historical and socio-political conditions Slavery  Was a product of, and expanded the development of, the capitalist world-system  Slave labor; mass exploitation; slaves were traded commodities that were central to plantation agriculture and commodity production  Race of continuing critical significance for the global economy (Winant)  Racial/cultural identities dynamic; change through history across the intersection of pre- Race and  colonial and post-colonial experiences Racially/culturally subordinate groups Cultural internalize, and act back on, different particularized histories and identities Identities  Race, notwithstanding socio-historical transformations, is also constrained by socio- historical context (Hall, Gilroy)  Slavery’s  The impact of slavery as social death; the severing of identity, the severing of family, community and cultural narratives (Patterson) Legacy on  Double-consciousness of African-Americans (Du Bois) Racial o Looking at the self through the eyes of a world that looks on in contempt Identity  Du Bois:  Emasculation of African-American men  Economic exploitation; ex-slaves reduced Legacy of  to subsistence Economic, political and cultural racism Slavery circumscribed the achievements of ex- slaves o Racial equality necessitates the emancipation of all wage-laborers o Racial equality must also mean gender equality The Black Middle Class E. Franklin Frazier (mid twentieth century) Social and economic changes in the first half of the twentieth century fostered the emergence of a black middle class Criticized the black middle class’s rejection of its cultural history o Produced its self-loathing racial identity  Race and William J. Wilson Declining significance of race Class Today Economic class differences more important than race in determining blacks’ life chances/outcomes Race and class intersect Divide between the black professional/middle class and the black underclass Persistent divide between black and white middle-class lives/experiences (Patillo) Video # 4 – Racism 101 Dr. Joy Degruy POST TRAUMATIC SLAVE SYNDROME: JOY DEGRUY  Historical trauma has lead to Multi-generational Trauma  Current Oppressive policies continues to perpetuates the trauma  Learnt helplessness among black---internalise, modelled by those in the environment eg. Children, community  Deep injury  Cognitive dissonance {“the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioural decisions and attitude change”}  Thomas Jefferson---Blacks needed less sleep (to justify POST  long work hours)  Blakely did analysis of human Skeleton remains that provides the empirical evidence that blacks were literally TRAUMATIC worked to death.  {The study of enthesopathy refers to a disorder SLAVE involving the attachment of a tendon or ligament to a bone. This site of attachment is known as the enthesis (pl. SYNDROME entheses). If the condition is known to be inflammatory, it can more precisely be called an enthesitis.} CONT’d  Jefferson justification of the dehumanisation of blacks is that they incapable of feeling pain or grief!  He noted that blacks smelt bad & are physically unattractive  POST  Rev John Newton— Slaves were lesser creatures TRAUMATIC without Christian souls and are thus not destined to the next world [expressing cognitive dissonance] SLAVE  Richard---son of a presbyterian minister, although he never left home, but he was an international trader of SYNDROME: enslaved Africans who amassed a fortune.  In 1906 –a black man (Binga) was put in the Bronx zoo- the role of --this is after blacks were so called ‘free’, Binga eventually shot himself! religion  The New York Times asserted that he belonged in that cage!  Denigrate to protect (children especially eg, during slavery when a member of the white POST planter class etc. TRAUMATIC  Would pay a compliment to the black woman’s child she would say he is stubborn SLAVE and lazy as a way to protect her son from SYNDROME been seen as prime bull to be sold off or her daughter to be raped and breeded) CONT’d  This is called Appropriate Adaptation that comes about as a consequence of living in a hostile environment. Video #3 Post traumatic Slave Syndrome Examples of unethical research done to Blacks  The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (1932-1972)  The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment was a clinical study conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama, by the United States Public Health Service.  Four hundred Afro-American sharecroppers, most of them illiterate, were studied to observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis up to their eventual death by the disease. Examples of unethical research done to Blacks cont’d  This experiment aroused controversy and led to changes in the legal protection of the patients involved in clinical studies. Subjects involved in this experiment did not give their informed consent; they were not informed of their diagnosis and were told that they were being treated for “bad blood.”  They were also told that if they participated in the study, they would be given free medical care, free transportation to the clinic, free meals, and free burial insurance in the case of death. Subjects were also warned to avoid penicillin treatment, which was already in use with other patients nearby. Examples of unethical research done to Blacks cont’d  In 1947, penicillin had become the treatment of choice for syphilis.  Instead of treating the subjects of the study with penicillin and concluding it or establishing a control group to study the drug, the scientists in charge of the Tuskegee experiment hid the information on penicillin from the subjects in order to continue studying how the disease spread and eventually led to death.  The study continued until 1972 when it was leaked to the press, thus bringing it to an end. By then, 28 of the 399 patients had died from syphilis and another 100 from related medical complications. In addition, 40 patients’ wives were infected and 19 children contracted the disease when being born. Examples of unethical research done to blacks cont’d  The Tuskegee experiment led to the Belmont Report of 1979 and the creation of the National Human Investigation Board, as well as the request for the creation of institutional review boards (IRBs).  https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/tuskegee-syphilis- experiment Video- Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment on blacks Racism in Sports  Racist chants against Vinicius Jr. real Madrid and Brazilian player. He was subjected to racial slurs and chants last season during a Real Madrid match sparking outrage in the international Football community.  https://edition.cnn.com/2023/05/21/sport/real-madrid-vinicius- laliga-racism-spt-intl/index.html Racism in Football today Cont’d Race and Community Decline  Nihilism and hopelessness in black communities as a result of the lived realities of systematic racism  Increasing incidence of suicide among black male youth  High rates of black-on-black violence  High rates of imprisonment of black men Black Popular Culture  Expresses lived experiences while simultaneously projecting a fantasized reality  Accentuates consumption and consumption- derived social status  Degrades women and gays; thus reinforcing divisions among blacks New Racial Politics  Politics of conversion: Local grassroots activism and accountability (West)  Emphasis on building cross-racial alliances  Emphasis on bridging intra-racial gender and sexual divisions New Racism  The color line is transformed into culture lines (Gilroy)  The appropriation and repackaging of racial difference by advertising/mass media and consumer culture  Obliterates racial differences while perpetuating racial hierarchies; racial inequality New Racism  The displacement of biological (racial) differences by (race-based) cultural differences  The view that people should stick with their own kind not because they look alike, but because they think alike  They think and act differently than the dominant cultural group Racism in the 21st century  Note the case of Ahmaud Arbery who was shot and killed by a father and son duo white supremacists while jogging in his community.  It was only after a video surfaced in May 2020 that they were arrested and charged for his murder. Racism in the 21st century  George Floyd’s final words --- “Please I Can’t Breathe, My stomach hurts, my neck hurts, everything hurts, they’re going to kill me” (May 26, 2020)  Killed by a white Minneapolis officer in the street ( kneeling on the neck of George Floyd a black man his neck (who was already restrained in handcuffs) for more than 7 minutes—all the while pleading for his life caught on video…I can’t breathe!!! All the while with 3 other officers stand around doing nothing. There was no response from any of the officers to check on Floyd. He subsequently died!). Racism in the 21st century  Sparked days of protests (some violent) & riots in Minneapolis initially and then spread to all states and other countries.  For example, Jamaica, UK, France, Germany  Derek Chauvin was arrested for second degree murder (AND CHARGED!) along with the other three officers who failed in their duty to intervene and therefore, were complicit in the death of George Floyd.  Calls for Police reform, discussion happening on Capitol hill from both sides.  12 states and municipalities have banned chokeholds used by police (including Minneapolis and Washington DC) Racism in the 21st century  On May 29, 2020 CNN Omar Jimenez (a reporter of colour) and his crew arrested in the street of Minneapolis on live tv for doing his job after complying with the requests of officers and showing his credentials! However, his white colleague (Josh Campbell) a block away did not have the same experience.  The CNN Crew subsequently released…the Minnesota governor Tim Walz gave a public apology. He reasserted that there needs to be a safe space for journalism. Racism in the 21st century  Is it enough to be non-Racist (“I don’t see race”)…do people who are not of colour need to be ANTI-Racist?  Donald Trump in response to the protest in the Minnesota “…When the looting starts the shooting starts” (a loaded tweet with very specific historical reference (racist history—from a 1967 Miami chief police during the civil rights era) (Twitter also put a warning on the tweet that is believed glorifies violence).  the statement by Trump was officially but on the white house twitter account  This tweet effectively pored gasoline on a tense situation and arguably condones lawlessness.  Furthermore, it seems to signal that shooting by the police is an appropriate punishment for looting. Racism in the 21st century  Following the shooting of Jacob Blake in August 2020 in Kenosha Wisconsin (unarmed and shot 7 times in his back, now paralysed).  Trump visited Wisconsin did not meet the family, instead struck a more combative tone. Racism in the 21st century  The killing of a mentally ill black man Daniel Prude in March 2020 has also caused uproar in the United States. Racism in the 21st century  Black medical worker who was shot and killed by Louisville police officers in March during a botched raid on her apartment, has been one of the main drivers of wide-scale demonstrations that erupted in the spring and summer over policing and racial injustice in the United States.  https://www.nytimes.com/article/breonna-taylor- police.html#:~:text=The%20death%20of%20Breonna%20Taylor,injusti ce%20in%20the%20United%20States.  Reject Reject racism and racist thinking Rethinking Move beyond the languages and institutional Racial Move practices that use biological and cultural differences to reproduce social hierarchies Differences Move Move toward a planetary humanism that affirms the shared humanity across differences Critical Discussion Question  According to Joy Degruy slavery was a holocaust and a traumatic experience, this trauma is multigenerational(it affects successive generations.  Why do you think that these historical events were not captured in sociological theorising? Video-How Europe twisted history to destroy African culture Additional resources  https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-54007884  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xv_d2RUDMag  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=laztUibh-v0  https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040 406.131740 Additional resources cont’d  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DvmM7nPqVA&t=6s  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSst2QANeyg  https://theconversation.com/slavery-reparations-theres-little-legal- basis-to-make-companies-pay-for-historic-actions-141081  Additional Resources!  https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/06/16/how-fluid-is- racial-identity/race-and-racial-identity-are-social-constructs  https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/05/what-we- mean-when-we-say-race-is-a-social-construct/275872/  https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/zong-massacre- 1781/ The Beginnings of Sociology: Did it begin in western Europe? CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY (SOCI2000) LECTURER: RASHALEE M. MITCHELL Main objectives 1. Critically examine the role that race played in the development of sociology. 2. Critically evaluate, the beginnings of the discipline, by providing empirical evidence, there by demonstrating that it is NOT western, white or emerged during the industrial revolution. “Seeing” the World Theoretically  Theory is a statement that tries to explain how facts or events are related  Develop skills that are necessary to see the world from alternative perspectives  Each theory has both strengths and weaknesses  Each theorist offers unique insights into our social world Theory  Different theories/theorists offer different ways of looking at the same social reality  Different lenses, different assumptions, different emphases Sociological Theory  Diverse perspectives  A plurality of ways of looking at the same social phenomenon  Macro and micro analyses  Structural and cultural constraints  Agency vis-à-vis structural and cultural processes  Classical and contemporary theories Emergence of Sociology  Nineteenth century; independent field of study  Analysis/critique of social structures  Society – a human social creation, not divinely ordained  Eighteenth-century societal transformation paved the way for sociology to emerge; changed how people think about themselves and society The Historical Development of Sociology, cont’d  The Industrial Revolution: around 1750  Often associated with technological advancement  Profound social changes  Moved from an agricultural society based on local food production for local consumption to regional and national distribution networks  Resulted in new social problems Video on the Industrial revolution Video #2-Causes of Industrial Revolution Societal Transformation  French Revolution, 1779: liberty, equality, fraternity  American War of Independence; Declaration of Independence, 1776  “All men are created equal …”  “We the people …”  Political equality o Rejection of inherited privilege; of monarchy o Elevation of freedom and equality; democracy The Historical Development of Sociology, cont’d.  The Political Revolution: Renaissance to the Enlightenment  Machiavelli- human behaviour motivated by self- interest  Descartes- “I think, therefore I am”, we are all masters of our own destiny  Locke- knowledge is the result of experience  Rousseau- we achieve more working together than we can apart  Promotion of individual rights and social responsibility, equality of opportunity and the political ideology of democracy Classical Sociological Theory (1600-1750)  Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)  People are responsible for creating their social worlds  Natural state: how humans existed prior to the emergence of social structures  People are motivated by self interest and the pursuit of power  John Locke (1632-1794) God was responsible for the emergence of society and government Tabula rasa: people are born as blank slates Right to self-preservation and to private property Individual autonomy and freedom Classical Sociological Theory (1600-1750)  Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755)  People never existed outside, or without, society  Humans created and defined by society  Laws define the spirit of the people; the Republic, the Monarchy, and Despotism  Appreciation for cultural diversity and comparative methodology  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) The Social Contract: people existed in symbiotic and idyllic relationships in the natural state Human beings are perfectible and can achieve their potential only through society Entered into the social contract free and equal individuals  Enlightenment Thought  Reason and rationality  Individuals have innate reason ▪ Able to think about things ▪ Able to govern themselves  Inalienable rights ▪ Debates about the rights of the individual vis-à-vis the order and common good of society The Enlightenment (1650-1799)  Challenged years of Christian teachings  Philosophers advocated critical thinking and practical knowledge and built on the natural sciences  Challenged beliefs guided in tradition  Resulted in the ability of the masses to challenge their oppressors  Reorganization of societies  Sociology was born out of the conservative reaction against enlightenment thinking Video on the Enlightenment  Reason/Science  An emphasis on science, scientific argument  Empiricism; emphasis on observation and experience; things can be known and explained  Use of reason/science produces human-social progress; science as the way forward  Copernicus, Galileo: Challenges to religious/theological truths Other Important historical activities/factors  There are other important activities that are not noted as significant in the changes that had happened to the western European societies, including:  The Triangular trade, the Plantation system of slavery  colonisation and the benefits that the European societies garnered from the “new world” through exploitation and plunder which at least helped to fuel the Industrial revolution. Auguste Comte  France, 1798–1857  Believed in Enlightenment thought; reason and progress  Believed in the universality of science  Positivism: ▪ An emphasis on external, observable empirical phenomena ▪ Contrast with theology and metaphysics (nature of being; man’s innate rights) Positivism  Emphasis on the discovery of patterns, regularities, “laws” of how things work  Not concerned with critique, but with documenting/affirming the regularities in society/social life Comte  Sociology: a positive, systematic theory of the human-social order o Social physics; objectivity o Science of society; observation and analysis of objective, observable data o Sociological knowledge >> social progress o Comte believed that in essence, that the same methodological approaches that are used in the natural sciences can be used in the study of society o Comte’s contribution is important as he pointed the discipline in the theoretical and methodological direction it was to take for the next two centuries. Early Observers  Harriet Martineau 1802–1876, English o Visited America, 1830s o Interested in the practice of equality o Highlighted gender and racial inequality Sociological Method  Harriet Martineau: ▪ Translated Comte; shared his view of sociology as science; believed in social progress ▪ Studying society is different to studying non-human objects ▪ Sociology: The study of morals and manners; requires sympathetic understanding of human behavior  Wilhelm Dilthey: Sociology as interpretive understanding Early Examples of the Sociological Craft  Alexis de Tocqueville, 1805–1859, France o Visited America, 1830s o Democracy in America; equality, democratic traditions, social institutions Other Important contributors  In this critical course evidence must be noted that other early thinkers and the Black influence that contributed to the development of the discipline Including:  W.E.B. Du Bois born 1868 to 1963 –his case will be further explored & strengthened later in the course. Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology  Abdel Rahman Ibn-Khaldun- born in Tunis North Africa in 1332  *More than 400 years before the Enlightenment.  According to George Ritzer had many ideas in common with the ‘founding fathers’ and contemporary sociology. Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology Cont’d  According to Ritzer, Khaldun:  … “was committed to the scientific study of society, empirical research and the search for causes of social phenomena. He devoted considerable attention to various social Institutions (for example, politics economy) and their interrelationships. He was interested in comparing primitive and modern societies,” (Taylor, 2003). Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology Cont’d  Khaldun was concerned about the science of human society.  His approach to the to the understanding was positive rather than normative. He was concerned about the study of society as it is versus how it should be.  Khaldun’s approach to the study of sociology included the economic and urban institutions, the state & solidarity. Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology Cont’d  He utilised a comparative approach that is useful to general sociology such as studying; nomadic, feudal, prebendal, Muslim and non-Muslim societies.  According to S.F. Alatas, some areas, of Khaldun’s sociology included; society and it’s divisions, tribal societies and primitive peoples, authority and ways of making a living. Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology Cont’d  Ibn Khaldun was largely considered by many in the Arab and Muslim scholarship as the originator of the discipline. Some include:  Ali Abd al- Wahid Wafi who undertook a comparative study of Ibn Khaldun and Auguste Comte (1951)—in this work he describes Khaldun as the founder of Sociology.  In 1932 Abd al- Aziz Izzat wrote his thesis entitled; “Ibn Khaldun et sa science sociale” & in 1951 also published a comparative study on Ibn Khaldun and Aguste Comte Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology Cont’d  Only in 1810 did some of Khaldun’s work translated into French by Silvestre de Stacy Ibn Khaldun’s Contribution to Classical Sociology Cont’d  Western scholars also referred to Khaldun as the founder of sociology in the 19th century. Some include: Von Kremer 1879, Flint 1893, Gumplowicz 1899/1928.  Becker & Barnes in their 1938 treatise: Social Thought from Lore to Science, discussed the ideas of Khaldun who they suggest was the first apply “modern-like ideas in historical sociology”,(Alatas, 2011, pg. 19). Why was Khaldun left out?  Khaldun’s sociological theory was not developed over the centuries.  He is rarely systematically discussed theoretically & systematically in relation to modern sociology.  Furthermore, the theoretical neglect has allowed the Eurocentric hegemony in sociology and academia in general.  Focus on Eurocentric features (such as; positioning Europeans as originators & the dominance of European concepts/categories) rendered non- Western thinkers marginal. Video on Smith Vs. Ibn Khaldun Critical Discussion Questions  Why is Khaldun still largely ignored by western scholars?  What is meant by the marginalisation of Khaldun?  Is there a space to develop Khaldunian sociology that can be applied to historical and contemporary empirical cases? Other Important contributors  Egyptian civilisation- Egyptian Mystery System  Greek Triad- Plato, Aristotle and Socrates--- According to George James 1988, Cheikh Anta Diop , Theophile Obenga 1992, Ivan Van Sertima 1976 and Martin Bernal 2001;  * all assert that there is a direct link with the teachings of the Greek triad (which provided the intellectual framework upon which modern western thought was constructed and by extension the development of sociology) and significant elements of the Egyptian civilisation. Other Important contributors Cont’d  George James in The Stolen Legacy (James 1988)  Notes that some of Socrates’ main teaching was correlated directly with Egyptian antecedents.  James opines:  “During the Persian, Greek and Roman invasions, large numbers of Egyptians fled not only to the desert and mountain regions, but also to adjacent lands in Africa, Arabia and Asia Minor, where they lived and secretly developed the teachings which belonged to their mystery system, (Taylor, 2003, pg11). Other Important contributors Cont’d  Mystery system was taken to Spain by the Moors in the 8th century  The Greeks called the same body of wisdom Sophia  Eg. 1/ The doctrines of opposites & harmony  2/ Salvation of the Soul  All associated with the Eyptian Mystery System Critical Discussion Question #1  Does the matter of race feature in the classical sociological theorising? Critical Discussion Question # 2  Why was gender absent from the classical sociological cannon?  Final Thoughts  Any questions, comments, concerns or suggestions??  Evaluation activities:  One minute summary  1 or 2 points that stood out about the topic for you  Muddiest points?  There will be a prize at the end for the person who give the best One Minute Summary! ☺ ☺ ☺  The End  I hope this has helped with your understanding of what Sociological theorising is about.  Please use the additional resources on OURVLE ☺  Done by Rashalee M. Mitchell September 12, 2023  THE CASE FOR SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY-SOCI2000 Lecturer: Rashalee M. Mitchell VIDEO-SOCIOLOGY IS A SCIENCE  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE What is science? Science is the use of systematic methods of investigation, theoretical thinking and the logical assessment of arguments, to develop a body of knowledge about a particular subject matter, (Giddens, 2001, p.640). Generally accepted criteria of science: 1. Empirical evidence- from the real world gained through observation and the findings are presented as facts 2. Theories are proposed and hypotheses tested to try establish generalisations or laws  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE CONT’D 3. Attempts are made or refute hypotheses; thus scientific laws may be amended and given greater validity 4. Scientific laws have universal application, they form the basis of accurate predictions 5. The subject matter is capable of clear-cut and useful classification, for example botany and chemistry  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE CONT’D 6. A science has its own specialised subject area and operates within a paradigm or ‘ideological framework’ i.e. explanatory models comprising a set of related concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and methods of inquiry. 7. Objective and value free—the practitioners study things as they exist and are not concerned with how they ought to be.  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE CONT’D Science involves: 1. A specific invariable methodology that allows for the identification, collection and elaboration of factual evidence 2. A theoretical rationale that informs how scientists practice “doing research”. 3. The development of laws or “law-like” statements about the world. 4. A clear separation between “facts” (descriptions and explanations of the world ‘as it is’) and “values” (opinions as to what we would like the world to be). Science is more than a body of knowledge, it is a set of principles that tells us how to go about the task of producing valid knowledge. **ETHICAL ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH Why Ethics is important in social research VIDEO-ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH  ETHICS IN RESEARCH CONT’D Ethical issues are important in (sociological) research because the subject matters of such research are people. People would have created their cultures, norms and values overtime and such research can have damaging effects on their lives and activities. Indeed, they can alter how they view themselves and others. A researcher ought to take into consideration the moral obligations in ensuring that the research causes no harm to the people being studied or exposes them to harm.  ETHICS IN RESEARCH Ethical considerations in research are vital because they can influence the validity and reliability of a study. Researchers conform to ethics to ensure the safety of the respondents and themselves. One of the main ethical consideration in social research is to get the informed consent of the respondents before involving them in a study. In some cases, it may be difficult to get this informed consent. However, the outcomes of social research may have damaging effects on the people under investigation and so respondents must be allowed to come to terms with what they are getting involved in.  ETHICS IN RESEARCH People have a right to privacy and should be able to determine whether they want to participate in social research. Hence, it is unethical for researchers to examine people without their consent. It may give rise to serious legal problems. However, it might become necessary if access to these people is limited and the benefit of the research outweighs any harm that may come from the research.  TWIN PILLARS IN RESEARCH ETHICS Confidentiality and anonymity represent the twin pillars of research. They are the main moral principles that guide research.  THE ROLE OF ETHICS COMMITTEES The main responsibility of a research ethics committee is to protect potential participants in the research, but it must also take into account potential risks and benefits for the community in which the research will be carried out. Its ultimate goal is to promote high ethical standards in research, (WHO, 2009). VIDEO-IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS COMMITTEE  EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (1932-1972) The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment was a clinical study conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama, by the United States Public Health Service. Four hundred Afro-American sharecroppers, most of them illiterate, were studied to observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis up to their eventual death by the disease. This experiment aroused controversy and led to changes in the legal protection of the patients involved in clinical studies. Subjects involved in this experiment did not give their informed consent; they were not informed of their diagnosis and were told that they were being treated for “bad blood.” They were also told that if they participated in the study, they would be given free medical care, free transportation to the clinic, free meals, and free burial insurance in the case of death. Subjects were also warned to avoid penicillin treatment, which was already in use with other patients nearby.  EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH CONT’D In 1947, penicillin had become the treatment of choice for syphilis. Instead of treating the subjects of the study with penicillin and concluding it or establishing a control group to study the drug, the scientists in charge of the Tuskegee experiment hid the information on penicillin from the subjects in order to continue studying how the disease spread and eventually led to death. The study continued until 1972 when it was leaked to the press, thus bringing it to an end. By then, 28 of the 399 patients had died from syphilis and another 100 from related medical complications. In addition, 40 patients’ wives were infected and 19 children contracted the disease when being born.  EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH CONT’D The Tuskegee experiment led to the Belmont Report of 1979 and the creation of the National Human Investigation Board, as well as the request for the creation of institutional review boards (IRBs). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/tuskegee-syphilis- experiment  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NATURAL SCIENCE & SOCIAL SCIENCE What are the goals of science in both the natural and social world? To explain why something happens To make generalisations that goes beyond the individual case To predict what will happen in the future Why are these goals useful?  FOUR COMMON CHARACTERISTICS BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND NATURAL SCIENCES 1. It is Empirical – based on facts and information obtained through various methods of observation as opposed to speculation or imagination. 2. It is Theoretical – information collected through research is organised in the form of theories, which consist of coherent and logically related principles, which allow for the prediction of behaviour. 3. It is Cumulative – researchers build upon the work of his/her predecessors. Most new theories develop, modify, expand and refine the older ones. Eg. Comte » Durkheim » Parsons & all other theorists (esp. post 1950s in sociology) 4. It is Objective – the researcher’s own values or opinions should not affect their research findings. The main aim is to discover the truth: identify, describe, analyse & explain but not to provide opinions on whether the findings are good or bad. Any examples? ARGUMENTS FOR V.S. AGAINST SOCIOLOGY BEING SCIENCE Arguments for Arguments against 1. Sociological research follows the steps 1. Sociology cannot be studied in the same manner of the scientific method. Sociology studies as a matter is studied thus, the laws of the natural sciences cannot be applied to the study of people. human behaviour, which is not easily (Is this a sufficient argument against?) quantifiable and ever changing. 2. Sociologist cannot make precise predictions and 2. It is Empirical the ability to predict the future is questionable. The subject matter of sociology is ever changing. 3. Theoretical 3. Laboratories cannot be used by social scientists. 4. Cumulative Researchers do not have the luxury of having social beings in a controlled environment to conduct 5. It is objective & value free experiments.  CRITICISMS OF NATURAL SCIENCES 1. Kuhn argued that scientific knowledge shifted in a series of ‘revolutions’ as new ‘paradigms’ came to replace old ‘paradigms’; he is also suggesting that science should not be seen as being characterised by consensus – rather there are a number of competing paradigms within science, and not all of them get taken seriously by those with power. One example of this is the science surrounding climate change. According to Sutton (2015) some (marginal) scientists were finding evidence of a link between the burning of fossil fuels and a warming climate in the 1950s, but this was largely dismissed by the scientific community until the 1990s, but today this is widely accepted.  CRITICISMS OF NATURAL SCIENCES CONT’D 2. Kuhn argue scientific knowledge is also socially constructed. 3. Sciences such as meteorology operate cannot control all of the variables therefore I cannot be precise and is unpredictable!  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE VIDEO The video gives a quick introduction to the classical theorists position on sociology as a science SOCIOLOGY: RESEARCH METHODS COMTE CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE Comte saw the development of society as progressing through 3 successive stages: 1. Theological – thoughts guided by religious ideas, society is a manifestation of God’s will. Eg. A major disaster— God’s dissatisfaction 2. Metaphysical –natural forces replaced by supernatural forces-transition stage – reason became more important. 3. Positive/scientific - scientific techniques to study the social world. Copernicus , Galileo & Newton achievements helped to strengthen this approach. This was the highest stage that helped us with the understanding of the society and social beings.  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE CONT’D Emile Durkheim 1858 - 1917 Emile is considered the bridge between social philosophy and a truly scientific philosophy. He built on the scientific philosophy of Comte. Emile Durkheim was the first sociologist to carry out and publish the first piece of empirical work in the western discipline---Suicide was published in 1897. Durkheim outlined the procedures/principles of the methodology- in The Rules of Sociological Method published in 1895. We will return to this in a more in depth way further in the course  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE CONT’D W.E.B. Du Bois 1868 – 1963 Du Bois was a black American sociologist that conducted the first piece of empirical work and published it in the Americas, -- The Philadelphia Negro was published in 1899. Of note is that this empirical work came only 2 years after Durkheim’s Suicide. Du Bois presented rich empirical evidence on the social situation of the lives of African Americans in Philadelphia. Du Bois carried out other types of research –that departs from the positivist frames that Comte & Durkheim followed.  SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE CONT’D Notably: 2. Interpretive essays-informed by historical research and personal experiences & keen observation, which emphasised subjective experiences & some of the sources of inequality among blacks- eg. Souls of Black Folk – published, 1903. 3. Political essays – focusing on pan Africanism & a socialist solution to inequality & racism- eg. Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace – published, 1945. We will return to this in a more in depth way further in the course  SHOULD SOCIOLOGY ENDEAVOUR TO BE LIKE THE NATURAL SCIENCES? Who defines science? Should there be a redefinition of what is a science based on the nature of the discipline?  SHOULD SOCIOLOGY ENDEAVOUR TO BE LIKE THE NATURAL SCIENCES? CONT’D Linda Shepherd in her treatise: Lifting the Veil -advocates for multiple modes of enquiry when dealing with the uniqueness of the subject matter. It must be recalled that other modes of knowledge which do not fit in the existing paradigm suggested by the positivist. In essence, because social scientists are dealing with people, one type of methodology such as: techniques rooted in positivism, will prove insufficient, to fully understand humans and the environment they exist within.  SHOULD SOCIOLOGY ENDEAVOUR TO BE LIKE THE NATURAL SCIENCES? CONT’D In Shepherd’s view there are other ways of findings out knowledge without scientific detachment. The fact that a phenomenon cannot be measured does not mean it is less valid. Sometimes emotional proximity is the best vehicle for understanding a particular social fact. (recall the point earlier about generalizability---this counters this point somewhat)  SHOULD SOCIOLOGY ENDEAVOUR TO BE LIKE THE NATURAL SCIENCES? CONT’D Doesn’t these other forms of enquiry allow for most of the characteristic of science identified earlier? -- Empirical, theoretical and cumulative. Is value freedom an absolute criterion for science? Let us discuss this! What is the ‘value’ of qualitative research techniques? Eg. Focus groups, semi- structured/unstructured interviews HARRIET MARTINEAU’S CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE Martineau (1802 -1876) is seen by many (1802 -1876) as the “first woman sociologist” and an “early feminist” She translated Comte’s scientific sociology and “regarded its dissemination as crucial to the march of social progress” (Dillion, 2014, pg.19). Martineau noted further that: “the law of progress is conspicuously at work throughout human history. The only field of progress is now that of Positive Philosophy … whose repression would be incompatible with progress” (Dillion, 2014, pg.20). HARRIET MARTINEAU’S CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE She was committed to an observation-based-science. She also recognised that taking into account of human emotions and values is different from challenges that biologists and physicists face. Martineau – How to Observe Morals and Manners (1838) –she explained the systematic way in which “morals and manners” the subject matter of sociology should be scientifically observed.  HARRIET MARTINEAU’S SCIENCE CONT’D Noteworthy, is that as early as the 1800s Harriet Martineau had many ideas in common with Comte about sociology as a scientific discipline. Furthermore, before Shepherd she was an early pioneer of the role interpretive understanding plays in understanding the subject matter of sociology. More importantly she emphasised that the ‘close proximity’ should be along scientific lines. SHORT VIDEO ON HARRIET MARTINEAU’S HARRIET MARTINEAU & GENDER CONFLICT THEORY  POSITIVISM VS. ANTI-POSITIVISM Positivism is a theoretical approach that considers all understanding to be based on science 1. There exists an objective knowable reality 2. Singular explanation 3. Value-free Anti-Positivism is a theoretical approach that considers knowledge and understanding to be the result of human subjectivity Rejects each of the positivist assumptions  QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY Quantitative Sociology Tends to be positivist in nature Measurable behaviour E.g., Crime rates over time Qualitative Sociology Anti-positivist in nature Non-measurable subjective behaviours E.g., Experiences of living in poverty, gang members, dealing with at risk populations such as; people living with HIV/AIDS, Men who have Sex with Men (MSMs) & Commercial Sex Workers (CSWs). VIDEO ON QUALITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE APPROACH  A PARADIGM NOT THE SAME AS A THEORY Paradigm – is a set of assumptions are A theory is a set of notions which are made in the construction of a notion or assembled in a particular sequence to theory. explain phenomenon. “A system of generalised statements or propositions about phenomena”, (Applerouth & Edles, 2014)  TRUE OR FALSE Qualitative sociologists often investigate the relationship between variables. IS SOCIOLOGY A SCIENCE?  ‘SCIENTIFIC’ THEORIES THAT HAVE BEEN FALSIFIED Theories can be falsifiable This video notes 10 scientific theories that have been supposedly falsified overtime. Some of the names may be familiar  ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Is Sociology A Science? - ReviseSociology Is Sociology a Science? The Case for "Yes" | Sociology | tutor2u  FINAL THOUGHTS Any questions, comments, concerns or suggestions?? Evaluation activities: 1 or 2 points that stood out for you about the topic Muddiest points Go in groups of 3 talk about a key point related the topic and then based on the discussion speak to the larger group. There will be a prize at the end for the group that gives the best report! ☺ ☺ ☺  THE END I hope this has helped with your understanding of what Sociological theorising is about. Please use the additional resources on OURVLE ☺ Done by Rashalee M. Mitchell September 17, 2024 CAPITALISM THE IMPORTANCE OF CAPITALISM TO SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY LECTURER: RASHALEE M. MITCHELL SOCI2000: CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY CAPITALISM  Capitalism is the most important phenomenon for the foundation of sociological theory  It’s impact is two fold:  a/Part of a historical process which ultimately led to a deeper inquiry into the social world  b/Occupies center-stage with other historical processes such as:  Enlightenment, the rise of science, the industrial revolution and the French revolution---which all led to the emergence of a new type society in western Europe. CAPITALISM CONT’D  Also, it represents the central phenomenon into which the membership of the classical canon inquired.  Capitalism was paradigmatic and axiomatic to ALL the “founding fathers” (W.E.B. Du Bois, Durkheim, Weber & Mark). What is Capitalism?  Capitalism is;  The organic type of society that forms the basis for Spencer’s biological/organismic model.  The same organic solidarity which was central to Durkheim’s division of labour in society.  Capitalist society is also that rationally organised structure that Weber described in bureaucratic terms. CAPITALISM CONT’D  Marx spent his entire life engaging capitalism  Capitalist society is also that rationally organised structure that Weber described in bureaucratic terms  Marx spent his entire life engaging capitalism  Finally, W.E.B. Du Bois examined the impact of unequal race relations and how this fuelled the growth of capitalism in the American society. Du Bois also examined the negative impact of colonialism on the lives of black Americans. CAPITALISM CONT’D  Capitalism is a way of organising economic activity. The need to maximise profit from commodity production and exchange, rather than to satisfy the material needs of the producers is the main aim of capitalism.  Capitalism is a mode of a production based on unequal private ownership of the means of production. CAPITALISM CONT’D  Capitalism - “a historically specific way of organising commodity production; produces profit for the owners of the means of production (eg. factories, land, oil wells, financial capital); based on structured inequality between capitalists and wage-labourers whose exploited labour power produces capitalist profit,” (Dillon, 2014, pg.72).  Capital – “money and other (large-scale) privately owned resources (oil wells, land) used in the production of commodities whose sale accumulates profit for the capitalist,” (Dillion, 2014, pg. 72).  Profit- capitalists’ accumulation of capital as a result of the surplus value generated by wage-workers’ (exploited) labor power, (Dillion, 2014, pg. 72). Features of Capitalism (as outlined by Tom Bottomore, Anthony Giddens):  The dominance of factory as opposed to domestic production  Machinofacture (machinery) as opposed to manual production  Sharp and clearly defined division of labour  Interdependence among the main parts, thus, capitalism is seen as a system  A high degree of systematic equilibrium Features of Capitalism Cont’d  Conflict is an essential part of the system  Capitalism represents an improvement upon previous social formations  It is seen as inevitable  It rose out of the dynamics within a particular society— it was endogenous Criticisms of CAPITALISM  All the classical sociologists had a notion of capitalism that completely ignored the historical relationships western Europe had with Africa and the Caribbean.  For example the “triangular trade”, colonisation of the ‘new world’ including part of what is now the United States of America and the role they played building the economies of western Europe and America. Criticisms of CAPITALISM Cont’d  No mention of the Asian colonies such as: India, which is also completely ignored  No where in the works Marx is there a clear acknowledgement that the industrial revolution was as much attributed to colonialism as it was to conditions within western Europe. Criticisms of CAPITALISM Cont’d  Durkheim saw organic solidarity as arising from the needs of an expanding population in Europe.  Weber dedicated a large part of his work to a study of Western European culture in particular, the Protestant Ethic.  No links were made with other societies and the emergence and growth of Capitalism Criticisms of CAPITALISM Cont’d  Noteworthy, Du Bois did make the correlation with the rise and domination of capitalism with slavery and exploitation structural inequality and race. However, these ideas of Du Bois were not credited in early western sociology. Critical Discussion question # 1  This begs the question:  Was western classical sociology euro-centric, ethnocentric, male dominated, Ahistorical and racist, middle- class and white?  If yes why was this so?  Let us discuss this! Critical Discussion question # 2  Why were people like WEB Du Bois and Harriet Martineau left out of the classical sociological canon?  Let us discuss this! Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism  Eric Williams in his book; Capitalism and Slavery-  noted the origins of capitalism-which was “linked to a set of relations emanating from a colonial metropolitan core which established a set of colonies both as an expansion of its empire and as a supply for its needs” (Taylor 2003, pg. 15).  The Industrial revolution was fuelled by British colonies (Triangular Trade- which was the “nexus of exploitation for people of African decent” Taylor 2003, pg.15). Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  According to Williams, Jamaica accounted for 11% of all imports to Britain at the heights of the Industrial rev.  Hill supports Williams as he notes:  “The great prosperity of Liverpool and Bristol [among others]…was based very largely on this trade” [Triangular Trade] (Taylor, 2003, pg.15). Discussion question  What does this say about the growth of capitalism and its portrayal by the classical triumvirate? Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  Walter Rodney in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, had similar views to those of Williams, he pointed out that colonisation in Africa was a system that ensured continued exploitation of Africa which simultaneously meant that Western Europe would flourish. Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  “Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector…colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so- called mother country. From an African viewpoint, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped,” (Rodney, 1972, pg.149). Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  “There were several reasons why the African worker was more crudely exploited than his European counterpart in the present century. Firstly, the alien colonial state had a monopoly of political power, after crushing all opposition by superior armed force. Secondly, the African working class was small, very dispersed and very unstable owing to migratory practices. Thirdly, while capitalism was willing to exploit all workers everywhere, European capitalists in Africa had additional racial justifications for dealing unjustly with the African worker. The racist theory that the black man was inferior led to the conclusion that he deserved lower wages,” (Rodney, 1972, pg.150). Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  According to Beckles European states existed for the sole purpose wealth extraction.  Trading in enslaved slaves was a big business in the global economy which was exclusively managed by Europeans organized through large organisations and cartels who were uniquely positioned to gain the enormous profits.  In the seventeenth and eighteenth century the Caribbean was the foremost region of wealth generation for Europe. Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  Breakdown of Europeans % in the slave trade are as follows:  Britain = 45%  Spain =25%  France = 20%  Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Russian and American interests accounts for =10% Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  Beckles states:  “…to achieve maximum wealth extraction to fuel and sustain their national financial, commercial and industrial transformation. Therefore, for each European state, the Caribbean economy was primarily an external economic engine propelling and promoting national economic growth. No such economy has ever been as intensively exploited as that of the Caribbean by imperial entrepreneurs and nation states. In every respect, the European creation and integration of the Caribbean economy into the western financial and commercial system was intended for the former group’s exclusive economic benefit,” (Beckles, 2021, p.xi-xii). Critically examining the emergence of Capitalism Cont’d  Williams, Rodney and Beckles make a definitive correlation with the activities of the Triangular Trade and the subsequent exploitation of the African descendants and the benefits garnered by western European countries and the emergence of capitalism. Discussion question  How does the works of Walter Rodney, Eric Williams and Hilary Beckles help us to understand the historical process of capitalism better? Short Video on Capitalism Part 1 Short Video on Capitalism Part 2 Short video on the HISTORY OF IDEAS - Capitalism Video The Scramble for Africa Final Thoughts  Any questions, comments, concerns or suggestions??  Evaluation activities:  One minute summary  1 point that stood out for you about the topic  Muddiest points? The End  I hope this has helped with your understanding of what Sociological theorising is about.  Please use the additional resources on OURVLE ☺  KARL MARX 1818-1883 SOCI2000 Rashalee Mitchell-Lecturer  GUIDING QUESTIONS Is Marx a functionalist? Explain the dialectics in the works of Marx.  CONFLICT THEORY Marx is a conflict theorist Society is grounded upon inequality and competition Power is the core of all social relationships; scarce and unequally divided among members of society Social values and the dominant ideology are the vehicles through which the powerful promote their own interests at the expense of the weak Rooted in the writings of Machiavelli, Hobbes and Rousseau  KARL MARX Karl Marx –born May 5, 1818 in Germany Karl Marx though not a self proclaimed sociologist BUT he had a powerful sociology running through his work Marx like Durkheim, Weber and Du Bois asked and attempted to answer the fundamental sociological question: how is society possible?  KARL MARK CONT’D Marx a Historical Materialist or Economic Determinist As a Historical Materialist-main position is that the foundation for human history is concrete reality, not simply ideas.  KARL MARK CONT’D His Economic Determinism-stems from a fundamental argument that the primary basis for social behaviour is the pursuit of sustenance, shelter and clothing i.e. economic action.  KARL MARK CONT’D Means of Production-- material factors Relations of Production– the behavioural patterns Both the means & relations of production combine as the Mode of Production (organisation of the material & social existence).  KARL MARK CONT’D Mode of Production is the bedrock of society--determines all other elements, systems & institutions. Infrastructure/structure determines all other elements such as: value system, religion + other belief systems, law & politics –referred to as the superstructure BASE/SUPERSTRU CTURE Dynamic relationship between the material and social elements of society Base: material and economic foundation for society. Includes the forces and relations of production Superstructure: all of the things that society values and aspires to once its material needs are met. Includes religion, politics and law  UNDERSTANDING THE DIALECTICS Dialectics –comes from the Greek word ‘dialegesthai’ -which means to argue/converse. It originally meant the art of conversation, discussion or debate It was used by philosophers such as: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Hagel & Engels to emphasize contradictions in intellectual ideas and debates. UNDERSTANDING THE DIALECTICS CONT’D Dialectics is the centrepiece of Marx’s sociology, which he uses as an analytical tool throughout his work. Dialectics-Both sides are engaged in an interactive relationship, although they are separate elements. For Marx the dialectics is a model of the world that comprises two opposing but intrinsically connected halves/sides.  UNDERSTANDING THE DIALECTICS CONT’D Examples of the dialectics within the works of Marx Ancient Slave Owning societies-like: Roman empire, eg. Master v.s. Slave relations (the ideologies & material positions are fundamentally opposed to each other, there are inherent tensions between these two social classes). Feudal societies- like: medieval Europe, eg. Landlords v.s. Serfs (the ideologies & material positions are fundamentally opposed to each other, there are inherent tensions between the classes). UNDERSTANDING THE DIALECTICS CONT’D Capitalist societies- like today’s western societies eg. Bourgeoisie v.s. Proletariats (the ideologies & material positions are fundamentally opposed to each other, there are inherent tensions between these two social classes). Structure or infrastructure v.s. Superstructure False consciousness v.s. Class consciousness  KARL MARX & CONFLICT The concept of conflict is inseparable from Marx’s notion of the dialectics Main cause of conflict is the existence of social classes Conflict-emanates from the main classes in society been fundamentally opposed. The division of societies into classes is where conflict begins. For Marx one’s class position is determined by whether or not one is an owner of the means of production or not.  KARL MARX & CONFLICT CONT’D In a capitalist society the conflict cannot be avoided because the bourgeoisie has an economic orientation that is incompatible with that of the proletariat. Private property- the source and result of the profit accumulated by capitalists; and a source and consequence of the inequality between capitalists and wage-workers, (Dillion, 2014, pg.72).  MARX’S EPOCH/STAGES OF SOCIETY In Marx’s view all societies must past through in the various epochs : 1. Primitive communalism/communism 2. Ancient Slave owning societies--master v.s. slave 3. Feudal societies—landlord v.s. serfs 4. Capitalist societies—bourgeoisie v.s. proletariat 5. Communism-classless society  MARX: CAPITALISM AS A DISTINCTIVE SOCIAL FORM Inequality and private property are not unique to capitalism Marx acknowledged the economic and technological advances of capitalism, but he also saw the regressive aspects In a system of commodity production and commodity exchange, the objective is ceaseless accumulation of increasing capital and profit  MARX: CAPITALISM AS A DISTINCTIVE SOCIAL FORM Capitalism: The ties among individuals are based solely on economic exchange, economic interests Driven by the force of profit accumulation, capitalists do not have non-economic ties to their workers; this is what sets capitalism apart from other social systems, (Dillion, 2014).  CRITICAL QUESTIONS THUS FAR Do you agree with this? What about instances where business seemingly invest in the personal development of workers? Eg. Pay tuition, major discounts, provide grants etc. Could these actions be viewed as apart of masked exploitation needed to make capitalism remain viable?  MARX & ALIENATION Capitalism corrupts and distorts the relationship between the productive power and the worker…thus, restricting the human creativity ( locus of alienation) “Alienation occurs because men and women (and children) forfeit the right to control their own labour when they enter the employment of the capitalists, i.e. when they sell their labour power,” (Bratton & Denham, 2014, pg. 105).  MARX & ALIENATION CONT’D Workers lose autonomy and thus it becomes a degrading and dehumanising activity “Under the capitalist system…all means for development of production transform themselves into the means of domination over and exploitation of; the producers; they mutilate the labourer into a fragment of a man. Degrade him to the level of an appendage of a machine, destroy every remnant of charm in his work and turn it into a hated toil,” (Bratton & Denham, 2014, pg. 106).  MARX & ALIENATION CONT’D The division of labour produces alienated labour Marx outlines 4 types of related alienation that is experienced by the worker: 1. Alienation from the product 2. Alienation from the productive activity- (worker becomes an ‘appendage of the machine’)  MARX & ALIENATION CONT’D 3. Alienation from the human species –free ability of human beings to realise their full potential. Stifles the workers ability to be creative, and demonstrate their higher consciousness that differentiates us from animals, (Unable to maximise your full potential—becoming better than you are by tapping into other abilities). 4. Alienation from other human beings- “the estrangement of man from man”, alienates workers from other people and communal aspects of their of daily lives.  WORKERS’ ILLUSIONS Work, under capitalism, become a means to an end; it loses its intrinsic and creative value Wage-workers work in order to live (though many experience occupational injuries/illness/death as part of their work) The value of work- value to the capitalist in the creation of profit Contrary to Marx’s prediction that wage-workers will come to recognize their exploitation – how they are used by the capitalist class for the accumulation of capitalist profit – they instead embrace what Marx saw as the illusionary promises of capitalism, (Dillion, 2014).  FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS Wage-workers believe they will profit through their labor, but the capitalist will always profit more o This is how capitalism is structured; it is a profit-oriented system based on unequal economic relations The proletariat (and the bourgeoisie) believe that capitalism is a natural system – they embrace its illusions/its false promises – but it is a historically specific and human-made creation o False consciousness keeps the proletariat from seeing the contradictions of capitalism, (Dillion, 2014).  POWER OF IDEOLOGY Another highly significant reason for the maintenance of the status quo: the power of ideology in upholding capitalism and suppressing awareness of and concerns about capitalist inequality Ideology: The everyday ideas that circulate in society; the ideas that justify things and make things seem normal The ideas we have about things come from our everyday material and social existence; our lived realities “It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness.” (Dillion, 2014)  WHY DO WORKERS ACCEPT INEQUALITY? Many reasons: An expanded middle class More workers hold stocks; have a direct vested interest in the success of capitalism State intervention to prop up capitalist institutions and to compensate workers for capitalism’s most severe negative effects (e.g. unemployment, occupational injury). Unionization of labor; workers protected from excessive exploitation, (Dillion, 2014). Further incentives on the job outside of wages Any other ideas you can think of or further explanation on these points?  KARL MARX THE FUNCTIONALIST! Marx –commonly known as a conflict theorist However, this is not to say that Marx did not recognise that society has a tendency towards STASIS & EQUILIBRIUM. He understood in great measure the importance of elements such as : interdependence & belief systems that kept society in STASIS. Thus, in many respects Marx had some similar views as Spencer & Durkheim as Marx understood that capitalism comprised a system of interdependent parts.  KARL MARX THE FUNCTIONALIST CONT’D Ideas had a formative influence on society in so far as they kept the society together. He recognized like Durkheim, that common beliefs and sentiments were apart of the glue that cohered the various social parts of the system. KARL MARX THE FUNCTIONALIST CONT’D However, Marx was very clear as to where these values & sentiments emanated from. They were dominant values that emanated from the dominant class AND NOT common values from the average members of society as Durkheim suggested. In all societies the ruling ideas are those of the ruling classes, the classes that own the means of production are also those who control the means of ideological reproduction. Economic power determines political and social power Economic relations determines ideology  IMPORTANT TERMS TO RECALL: MARXIST PERSPECTIVE Dialectics: a way of seeing history and society as the result of oppositions, contradictions and tensions from which social change can emerge (Hegel) Dialectical materialism-the idea that historical change (material/economic change) is the result of conscious human activity emerging from and acting on the socially experienced inequalities and contradictions in historically conditioned (i.e. human made) economic forces and relations. Historical materialism- history as the progressive expansion in the economic- material-productive forces of society.  IMPORTANT TERMS TO RECALL: MARXIST PERSPECTIVE CONT’D Bourgeoisie-the capitalist class: owners of capital and the means of production, who stand in a position of domination over the proletariat (wage workers). Proletariat-wage workers who, in order to live, must sell their labour power to the capitalist class, which uses them to produce surplus value/profit.  IMPORTANT TERMS TO RECALL: MARXIST PERSPECTIVE CONT’D False consciousness- the embrace of the illusionary promises of capitalism False consciousness: belief in and support of the system that oppresses you Class consciousness- the group consciousness necessary if wage workers (proletariats) are to recognise that their individual exploitation is part and parcel of capitalism, which requires the exploitation of the labour power of all wage- workers (as a class) by capitalist class in the production of profit.  IMPORTANT TERMS TO RECALL: MARXIST PERSPECTIVE CONT’D Class consciousness: recognition of domination and oppression and the collective action that occurs to address it Profit- capitalists’ accumulation of capital as a result of surplus value generated by wage-workers’ (exploited) labour power. Means of production-resources (eg. Land, oil wells, factories, corporations, financial capital) owned by the bourgeoisie and used for the production of commodities/profit as a result of labour power of wage workers.  QUESTIONS Can you think of some criticisms of conflict theory? Is this theory still applicable today? If so, can you think of some examples? KARL MARX & CONFLICT THEORY  FINAL THOUGHTS Any questions, comments, concerns or suggestions?? Evaluation activities: One minute summary 2 points that stood out about the topic for you Muddiest points Go in groups of 3 talk about a key point related the topic and then based on the discussion speak to the larger group. There will be a prize at the end for the person who give the best One Minute Summary! ☺ ☺ ☺  THE END I hope this has helped with your understanding of what Sociological theorising is about. Please use the additional resources on OURVLE ☺ Done by Rashalee M. Mitchell Georg Simmel 1858-1918 CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY-SOCI2000 RASHALEE MITCHELL Simmel  Simmel’s view on of society- “consists of a web of patterned interactions and that it is the task of sociology to study the forms of these interactions as they occur and reoccur in diverse historical periods and cultural settings,” (Coser 1977, pg. 177- Masters of Sociological Thought; Ideas in Historical and Social Context 2nd edition). Simmel  Simmel Did Not believe sociology was a science  Simmel believed that there can be No totalistic social science, just as there is No ‘total’ science of all matter.  “Science must study dimensions or aspects of phenomena rather than global totalities,” (Coser 1977, pg. 178- Masters of Sociological Thought; Ideas in Historical and Social Context 2nd edition). Simmel Cont’d  Like Weber, Simmel was concerned with developing a micro sociological approach based on the notion of a rational individual.  Both were caught in a dilemma- a theoretical and methodological ambivalence (which Weber never fully resolved).  Compared to Weber, Simmel made a better effort to straddle the micro and macro lines. Simmel Cont’d  In discussing the dyad & triad, Simmel demonstrated how the micro & macro could be linked  Dyad- a group of two members-it is the smallest possible social group; if one person exits the group, it no longer exists. The two members can form levels of intimacy that is not necessarily found in larger groups. It also involves basic elements of social exchange such as; reciprocity, rivalry and power (Oxford Dictionary of Sociology- Marshall, 1998, pg. 176). Simmel  Dyad is the most fundamental unit for social behaviour. It represents a fragile unit as any disagreement can threaten the existence of the group.  Triad- consists of three members among them, they make the general guidelines & rules for their behaviour. In such a unit an individual may disagree and still not affect the longevity of the group. Similarly, guidelines maybe established which exclude the third member. Simmel Cont’d  Though Simmel does not explicitly admit it – the Triad is a macro sociological concept as the third member has the capacity to act independently of any single member--- it becomes a structure. Simmel as a micro theorist  Simmel’s view of society was counter to the organic view espoused by Comte, Spencer & Durkheim. For Simmel society has its own reality and independent of the interactions of individuals who belong to it.  Society – “a number of individuals connected by interactions…its is not a substance, it is nothing concrete, it is an event. It is the function of receiving and affecting the fate and development of one individual by the other,” (Applerouth 2014, pg. 221) Simmel as a micro theorist  He further states that: “ the significance of interactions among men lies in the fact that it is because of them that individuals …form a unity that is society, (Applerouth 2014, pg. 221). Simmel’s as a micro theorist Cont’d  In essence, society is something that individuals do as they influence and are influenced by others. The existence of one presupposes the other.  This speaks to and Interdependent duality – interdependent relationship between the individual and the society. The fusing of opposites into a coherent whole.  Does this approach sound familiar or resembles something we have discussed previously? Simmel’s dialectical approach  As noted previously, Simmel utilised the dialectical approach in many areas of his work.  In Simmel’s discussion on the dyad and the triad, he demonstrated how the micro and macro can be linked (serves also as an example of his dialectic approach).  It is Simmel’s dialectical approach that distinguishes him from Weber Simmel’s dialectical approach Cont’d  For Simmel sociation is the process by which individual behaviour is linked to larger social entities. This differs from socialisation which involves a unidirectional approach which Durkheim posited, (starts with the society and ends with the individual).  Sociation is dialectical. It involves the individual constructing social relations which in turn structures his/her own behaviour.  Weber did not make this sort of linkage that helped to redress the micro /macro ambivalence. Simmel’s macro theorising  Though Simmel rejected the organic model that was emphasised in the work of the classical triumvirate, he resorted to macro phenomena.  One example includes social types, one such was the stranger– who is near and far at the same time will often be called on as a confidant. Simmel’s macro theorising  The stranger is about displacement and the uprooted, displaced person.  This social type can be applied to the immigrant, the newcomer, the undocumented migrant the homeless, the outsider who becomes an insider- anyone who “comes today and stays tomorrow while remaining a potential wanderer….a ubiquitous representative of the modern world” (Scaff, 2011-Major social theorists, volume 1- Classical Social Theorists) Simmel’s macro theorising Cont’d  What is a social type? It is an attempt to establish large categories within which individuals fit, (This demonstrate the ambivalence- Simmel straddling on the macro line).  Although Simmel did not go as far as the “classical triad” , he had to depend on structural concepts in explaining how society was possible. Simmel’s macro theorising Cont’d  Examples of other social types include:  The poor , the mediator, the adventurer, the man in the middle, the renegade  Each social type is cast by the specifiable reactions and expectations of others. It is through the relation with others that one is assigned a particular position and is expected to behave in particular ways, (Coser 1977). Simmel’s macro theorising Cont’d  Example the poor as a social type only emerges when the society recognises poverty as a special status and puts people in this category.  “ the fact that someone is poor does not mean that he belongs to the specific social category of the poor…it is only from the moment that the poor are assisted…that they become part of a group characterised by poverty. This group does not remain united by interaction among its members, but by the collective attitude which society as a whole adopts toward it,” (Coser 1977, pg. 183). Simmel: The coldness of money  Simmel’s explanation of money is demonstrating the ambivalence in his work---the use of a macro concept like; money. It also further demonstrates the dialectical approach in his work.  Money transactions reinforces the coldness, fluidity and emotional detachment of modern social ties and an indifference toward individuals.  In modern societies money serves as a nexus for social integration, relations with others become less personal and intimate. Interactions therefore becomes more standardized like money itself as there is less emotional attachment. Simmel: The coldness of money Cont’d  Simmel parallels Weber’s analysis of modern society, as he notes that: “money plays an integral role in the trend towards rationalisation of social life,” (Appelrouth & Edles, 2012).  Indifference has replaced emotional attachments and personal loyalties. Simmel: The coldness of money Cont’d  For example, the monetary exchange with a sex worker as the epitome of calculated and impersonal detachment-which is a replica of what happens generally.  Simmel argued that the money transaction allows for  “a purely momentary relationship which leaves no traces…for money establishes no ties…Money serves most matter of factually and completely for venal pleasure which rejects any continuation of the relationship beyond sensual satisfaction: money is completely detached from the person and puts an end to any further ramifications,” (Dillion, 2014). Simmel & money cont’d  Simmel recognised the dialectical relation that people had with money. Money could both be liberating and alienating at the same time. This discussion on money underscores his classical contribution.  He made the point that for money to be useful there must be a wide level of consensus regarding its existence and use.  Therefore, rather than being an element which separates and alienates individuals it is more important to recognise that money is in itself a macro social concept based on widespread social consensus and is thus an element of social structure. Main Summary Points-Simmel 1. Simmel was interested in association, or interaction 2. In order to deal with bewildering array of interaction, sociologists and laypeople develop forms of interaction 3. In terms of the issue of size, there is a great difference between dyads (two-person groups) and triads (three-person groups). The existence of a third person in a triad makes possible the emergence of an independent group structure. No further additions in group size are as important as the addition of one person to a dyad. Main Summary Points-Simmel Cont’d 4. The larger the group structure, the freer the individual. 5. Simmel was interested in the issue of distance. This was manifested in his discussion of a social type, the stranger, who is neither too close to nor too far from the group. Distance is related to a social form, strangeness, which means that a peculiar form of strangeness and distance enters all social relationships. Main Summary Points-Simmel Cont’d 6. Distance is also related to Simmel’s thinking on value. Those things that are valuable are neither too close nor too far. 7. Sociation is a dialectical process, which is different from the unilinear process of socialisation. 8. Simmel’s emphasis on Social types is a clear use of macro theorising which demonstrates the ambivalence in his work. Criticisms  The ambivalence in Simmel’s work is seen by many as a criticism despite his dialectical approach.  He accused of not developing an unambiguous critical position or making a clear choice about the most desirable path toward a rational future.  Eurocentrism Georg Simmel Weber & Simmel  The concept of types for Weber & Simmel proves to be interesting as they both reject the concept of structure. Yet we see that both had to resort to macro theorising.  Both Weber & Simmel grappled with agency & structure, micro & macro debates but Simmel demonstrated how they were connected. Simmel v.s. Weber  Final thoughts  Any questions, comments, concerns or suggestions??  Evaluation activities:  One minute summary  1 or 2 points that stood out about the topic for you  Any muddiest points?  Go in groups of 3 & talk about a key point related the topic and then based on the discussion speak to the larger group.  There will be a prize at the end for the person who give the best One Minute Summary! ☺ ☺ ☺  The End  I hope this has helped with your understanding of Simmel.  Please use the additional resources on OURVLE ☺ Additional Resources  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f01mMEfsI1k W.E.B DU BOIS: RECANONISED IN CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY! MAKE THE CASE FOR W.E.B. DU BOIS AS THE FOURTH FOUNDING FATHER OF SOCIOLOGY,1869-1963. DONE BY RASHALEE M. MITCHELL OCTOBER 29, 2024 & NOVEMBER 5, 2024 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND  EXAMINING THE PREREQUISITES FOR BEING A FOUNDING FATHER OF SOCIOLOGY Acceptance of A commitment Accept that Make an original Engaged and Compares Overall Embodied the the to answering the sociology is a theoretical demonstrated in equally to other theoretical and “sociological entity/organism fundamental science and contribution that their work the “founding scientific imagination” called society – question in the make a valuable helps to explain significant fathers” in the contributions that is this is basic for all discipline (and its contribution to the fundamental historical process discipline. helps to debunk epitomised by C. sociologists derivatives)-How the scientific question. of capitalism. the paradigm Wright Mills. is society development of that is commonly possible? How the discipline. thought to have do we explain described and understand classical the social sociology. changes that take place in the society over time? How the modern society is   It is many things; multidimensional  Its meanings change through history and across diverse socio-political contexts What Is  It is relational; always understood in relation to group differences Race?  Symbolizes body color differences  Symbolizes sociopolitical conflicts  It is a marker of inequality What Is Racism? THE REDUCTION OF SOCIAL USING RACIAL CATEGORY USING SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND WHEN THE RACIAL OTHER IS IDENTITIES TO RACIAL CATEGORIES DIFFERENCES TO UNJUSTLY INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES TO DEFINED AS A PROBLEM AND/OR ALLOCATE SOCIALLY VALUED REPRODUCE RACE-BASED AS A VICTIM RESOURCES INEQUALITIES IN ACCESS TO RESOURCES Slavery  Was a product of, and expanded the development of, the capitalist world-system  Slave labor; mass exploitation; slaves were traded commodities that were central to plantation agriculture and commodity production  Race of continuing critical significance for the global economy (Winant)  The impact of slavery as social death; the severing of identity, the severing of family, community and cultural narratives (Orlando Patterson) Slavery’s Legacy on Racial Identity Double-consciousness of African- Americans (Du Bois) Looking at the self through the eyes of a world that looks on in contempt Du Bois: Legacy of Slavery Emasculation of African-American Economic exploitation; ex-slaves Economic, political and cultural men reduced to subsistence racism circumscribed the achievements of ex-slaves Racial equality necessitates the emancipation of all wage-laborers Racial equality must also mean gender equality SHORT BIOGRAPHY Of W.E.B. DU BOIS Mother was a domestic worker and father William Edward Burghardt (W.E.B.) Du Bois did odd jobs then eventually abandoned born in Massachusetts 1868 his family—Du Bois had to shoulder some burdens of the family early in life. Du Bois- first African American to receive a PhD from Harvard-despite his sophisticated He exceled in academics---started to analysis of race and racism was viewed as realise that his race set him apart from his controversial and going against the grade school colleagues of the academic establishment and the political tide, thus, he was excluded from the sociological canon.  Major  Du Bois was a transdisciplinary critical theorist  He was both a MACRO & MICRO THEORIST contributions  MACRO THEORIST He was macro as he noted larger issues and of W.E.B. Du  problems and how they affected the everyday lives of blacks. Some of these issues will be Bois to discussed in further details later, they include: Race, Colonialism, Imperialism, Capitalism and their intersections. classical  He saw racial segregation as a global problem--- sociological called for the British Negro, the French negro and the Ameri