Soc100 - Chapter 9: Gender, PDF

CHAPTER 9 Gender: The social construction of expected appearances, behaviors, roles, and traits that are built around sex categories. Sex: The biological characteristics of bodies used to distinguish males and females Gender inequality: Inequalities in power, status and wealth between men and wom...

CHAPTER 9 Gender: The social construction of expected appearances, behaviors, roles, and traits that are built around sex categories. Sex: The biological characteristics of bodies used to distinguish males and females Gender inequality: Inequalities in power, status and wealth between men and women Sex assignment: The sex a child is assigned at birth on the basis of their genitals: Sex is the term commonly used to describe the biological attributes that distinguish male and female bodies. These biological attributes include genitalia (the presence of a vagina or penis), chromosomes, and hormones. Sex is typically determined at birth by looking at the genitalia of the newborn baby, which is called sex assignment Sex and sex assignment are both thought of in terms of a binary, either male or female. The sex binary is captured in the familiar logo used outside of bathrooms across Canada and elsewhere in the world. There are two types of bodies, two sexes, and these sexes are distinct from one another. While sex is regarded as a characteristic of how someone is born—their biology—gender is something people learn through socialization and interaction with other people. More specifically, it is through early interactions with our family members and later interactions with friends, peers, teachers, coaches, employers, and mass media that we develop an understanding of the expectations of appearance, behaviours, roles, and traits. This process of learning gender is called gender role socialization. Notably, gender role socialization hinges on whether sex is male or female because of the belief that boys and girls, men and women, are different and distinct. The components of gender are often referred to as “masculine” and “feminine.” Gender roles, are expectations for the behaviour of men and women, including such things as an interest in playing sports (usually coded as masculine) or talents in writing and reading (usually coded as feminine). Parenting is an example of a gendered role, too; we assume that women are more interested than men in becoming a parent and in childrearing, and better suited to the role. Consider gender expression, too. If asked to imagine someone with long hair wearing a dress and make-up, most would picture a woman. In this way, aspects of gender expression are typed as masculine and feminine. Clothing is a particularly obvious example of how gender expression is normative, meaning there are commonly-held expectations about the kind of clothing that is appropriate for male and female bodies. For example, refer back to the earlier photo of the bathroom icon, which relies on a dress to make the male/female distinction. A quick look at the websites of major clothing retailers demonstrates how clothing designed for even the youngest of bodies is gendered. Girls’ clothing is more likely  to be adorned with glitter, frills, and animals in pinks and purples, while boys’ clothing is more likely to feature vehicles on predominantly green and blue clothing with reinforcements in the knees and looser fabrics for greater movability. When someone’s gender expression falls outside of normative expectations, they may be subject to a sanction like chastisement. The sum total of clothing style and colour, hairstyle, make-up, and similarly outward expressions are taken to mean something about gender, and not fulfilling people’s gendered expectations may come at a cost. While gender expression is outward, gender identity should be understood as an inward sense of an individual’s gender. It is not visible to others. A person’s sense of being a man or a woman are examples of gender identity. Gender identity also includes a sense of being neither or both a man or a woman, or elsewhere along a spectrum of gender (note the move away from the gender binary). Genderqueer is used by some people whose experience of gender identity is beyond the man and woman gender binary. Genderqueer people are likely to believe that gender is not a fixed set of binary categories, their gender identity may be more masculine or feminine or neither, and their gender identity may vary at different times in their life. An example of gender existing outside of a binary are two-spirit Indigenous individuals. Two-spirit refers to a North American, Indigenous gender identity that blends the feminine and masculine spirit, and is sometimes called a “third gender.” Two-spirit individuals may use the term to describe their gender, sexual, and/or spiritual identity. For transgender people, their gender identity differs from the sex assignment at their birth. For example, a transgender man is a person whose gender identity is man and they were assigned female at birth. Oftentimes, transgender people seek to align their gender expression—the presentation of their body and their behaviours—with their gender identity. Cisgender, then, is a term used to describe a gender identity that corresponds with the sex assigned at birth. For example, a woman who was assigned female at birth and whose gender identity is woman is a cisgender woman. Cisgender is the most common form of gender identity.  Gender identity is distinct from sexuality. In other words, you should not confuse a person’s gender identity with their sexual desires, identity, or behaviours. A person being cisgender, transgender, or genderqueer does not indicate anything about their sexuality, even though people often erroneously make these assumptions. Recall that sex assignment into male or female categories is accomplished upon the birth of a newborn baby, when the doctor or other birthing assistant consults the baby’s genitalia. But what if the infant’s genitalia are not clearly a vulva or a penis? The term intersex describes a baby with ambiguous genitalia or other variations in sex characteristics. The terminology is (DSD). Structural functionalists attempt to theorize gender known as sex role theory, articulated Talcott Parsons.To Parsons, one of the important functions of the family, which also contributes to a stable society, is the reproduction of men and women into appropriate gender roles. For men, this means participation in the paid labour market outside of the home, while the appropriate gender role for women is in the private sphere, as the carer of home, children, and spouse. Biological determinism: The belief that there are inherent, biological differences that determine the characteristics of a group of people, such as men and women. Parsons also argued that these gender roles are the natural outcome of men’s and women’s inherent differences. This particular position on the inherent suitability of men and women to different gender roles exemplifies how sex role theory hinges on biological determinism. That is, Parsons argued that men are better suited to the workplace because they are in possession of instrumental traits like competitiveness and rational thinking. Women are expressive, meaning they are (to Parsons) naturally nurturing and emotional and therefore well-suited to caring for children and a spouse. Furthermore, Parsons argues that men’s and women’s roles are complementary to one another. That is, both the publicly-situated gender role of the father—a worker and breadwinner (primary income earner)—and the privately- situated gender role of the mother—caregiver and household manager—are important to the functioning of the family and society more generally. Sex role theory: Sex role theory was popular in the 1950s and 1960s. It proposed that men and women have distinct but complementary roles: instrumental for men and expressive for women.  Feminists criticized Parsons for masking issues of power and privilege in his conceptualization of gender roles. Parsons’ view ignored the unequal value and power associated with different roles. The emergence of men’s studies in the 1970s critiqued the binary distinctions in sex role theory. Critics like Carrigan, Connell, and Lee argued that not all men fit the "instrumental" role. Men with "expressive" traits are seen as deviant in sex role theory. The same applies to women who do not conform to "instrumental" traits. Sex role theory relies on rigid gender roles within heterosexual families. It cannot account for changing roles in public and private spheres. The theory overlooks fathers' increasing involvement in childcare. It fails to recognize diverse family structures like single-parent and same-sex families. Critique of Biological Foundations: Sociologists challenge the biological basis of sex role theory, arguing that it oversimplifies gender differences. Infant Preferences: Research shows infants at 37 hours old exhibit visual preferences (females prefer faces; males prefer mechanical motion), suggesting inborn differences, but the actual difference is less than 10% Biology and Environment Interaction: Testosterone affects development and sex drive, but levels change based on social context, such as relationships or parenthood Gendered Preferences and Socialization: Gendered preferences (dolls for girls, trains for boys) are influenced by marketing and societal labeling, which can exaggerate minor differences Target’s Marketing Change: Target eliminated gender-based marketing for toys in 2015, reflecting shifting societal attitudes. De-gendering Campaigns: Campaigns like “Let Toys Be Toys” in the UK promote gender- neutral toy labeling. Evolving Parental Attitudes: Research indicates parents are increasingly labeling traditionally gendered toys as gender-neutral Gender as a Social Construction: This perspective suggests that societal influences shape our understanding of gender rather than biological determinism. Naming Conventions: Parents often select highly gendered names for babies, reflecting gender norms. Constructed Boundaries of Gender Expression:  Earrings: Their significance in gender expression varies across cultures Cheerleading: Perceptions of manliness and femininity associated with this activity differ by context Color Associations: The contemporary association of pink with girls Fashion: High-heeled shoes and tights, once worn by men in aristocratic circles, are feminized by today’s standards Black Feminism: Emerged in the 1960s in response to dissatisfaction with the Civil Rights Movement and mainstream feminism. It emphasizes the need for feminist discourse to be inclusive of women of color and rejects the idea that all women share similar experiences. It highlights that the oppression faced by white, middle-class women does not reflect the unique struggles of Black, lower-class, and disabled women. Intersectionality: A concept that arose from Black feminism, theorizing that overlapping social identities (race, gender, class, sexuality, age, and disability) create unique systems of oppression. It argues that the experiences of individuals, especially Black women, cannot be fully understood without considering the interdependent nature of these identities. The case of DeGraffenreid v. General Motors illustrates this, as the court failed to recognize the combined discrimination faced by Black women. Transnational Feminism: Expands the understanding of feminism to include the experiences of women globally, particularly those in the global south. It focuses on the intersections of gender, race, economic systems, and nationality. This perspective critiques the Western-centric views of gender inequality and seeks to decolonize gender norms. Decolonization of Gender Norms: The process of challenging and dismantling Western gender standards that have been imposed on colonized countries, which often reshaped local gender roles and relations. Rejection of Capitalism: Transnational feminism critiques global capitalism for its role in exploiting and oppressing individuals in the global south. It highlights how capitalist systems can reshape gender dynamics, as seen in the exploitation of female workers in luxury hotels catering to Western businessmen. Exploitation of Labor: Transnational feminists point out how women's labor is often commodified and controlled, reinforcing power imbalances. For example, female workers in China are trained to conform to Western ideals of femininity in hospitality settings, which illustrates the global nature of gender relations and power. Masculinity: Conceptualized as a "pattern of practice" rather than a fixed biological trait. It is viewed as a daily accomplishment that varies based on social settings and interactions. Gender as Performance: The idea that masculinity is performed through interactions and the fulfillment of culturally associated roles (e.g., high-powered CEO). Hegemonic Masculinity: The most culturally exalted form of masculinity, representing the ideal standards of behavior that all men are socialized to aspire to. It exists at the top of the  masculinity hierarchy and is reinforced by cultural and institutional norms. Characteristics include being well-dressed, strong, white, wealthy, and successful. Hegemonic masculinity promotes the dominance of men over women. Complicit Masculinity: Describes men who may not achieve hegemonic masculinity but still benefit from the overall social structure that privileges men over women. Marginalized Masculinity: Refers to masculinities intersecting with social categories like race, class, and ethnicity. While some racialized men may attain hegemonic status (e.g., celebrities, athletes), men of color generally are not considered hegemonic. Subordinated Masculinity: The masculinity of groups barred from achieving hegemonic status, often associated with gay men. This form of masculinity is ranked at the bottom of the masculinity hierarchy, symbolically linked to femininity and viewed as a rejection of hegemonic masculinity. Contextual Variation of Masculinities: Masculinities can shift based on social context, allowing a man to embody different forms of masculinity depending on his environment (e.g., work, home). Application of Hegemonic Masculinity: This theoretical framework is useful for analyzing various sociological topics, including globalization, fatherhood, and issues like men's sexual victimization. Global Bias Against Women: According to the UNDP, about 90% of surveyed individuals hold biases against women, with significant percentages believing men are better suited for business and political leadership roles, and some justifying physical violence against women. Gender Inequality in the Workplace 1. Workforce Participation Trends: o Women's participation in the labor force has increased significantly, with 82.1% of working-age women participating in 2020. However, this trend varies based on factors like immigration status and ethnicity. o Women's growing contributions to family income (40.9% of families in 2015) signify a shift away from traditional gender roles. 2. Work Hours and Part-time Employment: o Women generally work fewer hours than men, often due to child-rearing responsibilities. In 2022, men worked an average of 38.1 hours per week compared to women's 33.2 hours. o Women are overrepresented in part-time roles and report more days lost due to family responsibilities, which affects their overall earnings and growth. 3. Gender Wage Gap:  o Women earn $0.73 for every $1.00 earned by men in annual earnings. The gap narrows to $0.89 per hour when adjusted for hourly wage. o Occupational Segregation: Women are often in lower-paying, female-dominated jobs, which contributes to the wage gap. For example, fields like STEM, where women are underrepresented, offer higher wages. o Gender Wage Discrimination: Even when controlling for similar jobs, women face wage disparities, with the wage gap potentially narrowing to $0.97 for equal work. Women in Leadership Positions 1. Underrepresentation: Women remain significantly underrepresented in top leadership roles. As of 2020, only about 7% of Fortune 500 companies were led by women. 2. Glass Ceiling: refers to invisible barriers preventing women from advancing in organizations, often related to access to networks and mentors, regardless of qualifications. a. Sarah works at a big company and has been doing her job well for many years. She has good qualifications and has helped the company earn more money. b. Challenges: Few Mentors: Most of the senior staff mentor male employees, leaving Sarah without guidance to help her advance. c. Stereotypes: Some coworkers believe Sarah might not be as serious about her job because she is a woman, even though she is dedicated. 3. Glass Escalator: Contrasting the glass ceiling, some men in female-dominated professions experience rapid promotion and pay increases due to gendered expectations. 4. Workplace Sexual Harassment: Women face higher rates of sexual harassment in the workplace, especially in male-dominated environments. As more women gain leadership positions, there may be a shift in these dynamics. Gender Inequality in the Home 1. Culturally Defined Gender Roles: Traditional gender roles position women as caregivers, responsible for unpaid domestic work, while men are seen as breadwinners focused on paid employment. This division results in unequal participation in household labor, with women engaging more in routine tasks and men in less frequent, less time-consuming chores. 2. Household Labor Dynamics: o Women typically have a larger share of housework, even with a narrowing gap in time spent on domestic tasks. As of 2015, women still performed more hours of housework, especially when children were preschool-aged. o The economic value of unpaid household work in Canada is estimated between $517 billion and $860 billion.  o Teenaged girls contribute more to household chores than their male counterparts, suggesting early socialization of gender roles. 3. The Second Shift: Women often engage in unpaid labor at home after their paid work, leading to a phenomenon known as the "second shift." This burden arises from the expectation that women will handle both professional responsibilities and domestic tasks, perpetuated by traditional gender roles. 4. Factors Influencing Household Division of Labor: o Availability of time, gender ideology, income levels, social policies, and family structure all play significant roles in determining the division of household labor. o Couples with egalitarian views tend to share housework more equally, while those with traditional views often see men contributing less due to work commitments. 5. Same-Sex Couples: Research indicates that same-sex couples often engage in a more equitable division of household labor than heterosexual couples, with tasks allocated based on personal interests rather than gender norms. Gender Inequality in Education 1. Educational Attainment: Canada ranks first among OECD countries in terms of postsecondary education attainment, largely influenced by immigration policies favoring highly educated individuals. 2. Gender Dynamics: While women have made significant strides in education, there are still disparities in fields of study and subsequent career opportunities that perpetuate gender inequality. Gender-Based Violence 1. Intimate Partner Violence: Women are disproportionately affected by intimate partner violence, accounting for 79% of victims, with men being the perpetrators in 83% of reported cases. Femicide, or the murder of women, is particularly concerning, with women being seven times more likely to be victims of intimate partner homicide than men in Canada. 2. Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls: Indigenous women face heightened risks of violence and victimization, often exacerbated by systemic neglect and inadequate police responses. The Canadian government established a National Inquiry to investigate and address these issues. 3. Trends in Male Violence: Men are more frequently the perpetrators of violent crimes, with high percentages associated with various forms of violence, including sexual assault and homicide. Global Gender Inequality 1. International Measures: Global organizations measure gender inequality through indices such as the Social Institutions & Gender Index (SIGI) and the Gender Development Index (GDI), assessing various factors including access to resources, health, and education.  2. Variation Across Countries: There is significant global variation in gender equality, with Canada ranking 15th in terms of gender inequality in 2021. Comparative analyses reveal the different experiences of men and women in diverse cultural and societal contexts. The Importance of Policy 1. Parental Leave Policies: o Northern European countries, such as Norway, Sweden, and Finland, have established comprehensive parental leave policies that promote gender equality in the workplace and equitable responsibilities at home. o Norway stands out by reserving a portion of paid parental leave specifically for fathers, incentivizing their involvement in childcare. Sweden and Finland offer financial bonuses to fathers who take paid leave. o Norway also guarantees breastfeeding breaks for working mothers, a provision not available in Canada. 2. Global Variation in Parental Leave: o The United States is the only OECD country without any paid parental leave, whereas many other nations, including Canada, provide varying levels of support for both mothers and fathers. 3. Childcare Policies: o Canada currently lacks childcare, though recent federal budgets have aimed to subsidize early learning & childcare through agreements with provinces and territories. o The province of Quebec has long offered a subsidized child care program, initially set at $5 per day, which now varies based on family income. In contrast, parents in Ontario face significantly higher childcare expenses, approximately 4.5 times greater than in Quebec, encouraging employment. 4. Impact on Labor Market Participation: o The availability and affordability of childcare directly influence women's participation in the labor market. Ottawa and Gatineau reveal that the gender employment gap is 2.6% in Gatineau (where subsidized childcare is available) compared to 7.3% in Ottawa. This suggests that access to affordable childcare allows women in Gatineau to participate more actively in the workforce. 5. Gender Inequality in the Workplace: o Women's representation in leadership roles differs significantly between the public and private sectors. In the public sector, women hold leadership positions at parity with men, largely due to the enforcement of gender employment equity policies. o Conversely, in the private sector, women represent only 25.6% of senior management positions, highlighting the lack of similar policies to promote gender equity in leadership roles