Module 1: Concept of People and Culture PDF

MODULE 1: CONCEPT OF PEOPLE AND CULTURE People: The general and literal meaning of people is a pluralized term used to refer to group of persons. The term “people” is a common concept used in every day interaction. More specifically, the word “people” in sociology refers to a body of persons that share a common culture, tradition, or sense of kinship. It is also a social collection of persons or individuals. Nigeria is made up of people of different cultures and ethnic groups namely the Hausas, Igbos and Yorubas. Also, there over two hundred and fifty other ethnic groups in Nigeria. Our focus: In this course, the use of “people” is synonymous with “ethnicity”. An ethnic group or ethnicity is a socially defined category of people who identify with one another based on common ancestral, social, cultural or national experience. Ethnic membership definition: Membership of an ethnic group is understood by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry origin myth, history, homeland, language and/or dialect, ideology, symbolic systems (religion, mythology and ritual), dressing, physical appearance and so on. Group Identity: Group identity defines membership. Therefore, the following types of groups are identified: a. Ethno-religious group: emphasizing shared affiliation with a particular religion, denomination and/or sect; b. Ethno-racial group: emphasizing shared physical appearance based on genetic origins; c. Ethno-linguistics group: emphasizing shared language, dialect and/or script; d. Ethno-national: emphasizing a shared polity and/or sense of national identity; e. Ethno-regional group: emphasizing a distinct local sense of belonging stemming from relative geographic isolation. Approaches to understanding ethnicity Social scientists use different approaches to understand ethnicity in order to explain the nature of ethnicity as determinant of human life and society. Primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism and instrumentalism are important ones among the approaches. a. Primordialism: This approach suggests that in human history ethnicity existed at all times. Modern ethnic groups can be traced to the past. Ethnicity is closely linked to the idea of nations. Two types of primodialism are essentialist primordialism and kinship primordialism. o Essentialist primordialism: suggests that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence. Ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is basically unchanged by it. Kinship primordialism: suggest that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship system. This biological affinity can be observed in (language, religion, traditions) demonstrating kinship or clan ties. Geertz's primordialism: suggests that humans in general attribute great power to primordial human "givens" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences. Ethnicity is not in itself primordial but humans perceive it as such because it is embedded in their lived experience. b. Perennialism: This is about nationhood. It tends to see nations and ethnic communities as basically the same phenomenon. There are three types namely, perpetual perennialis, situational perennialis and instrumentalist perennialism. Perpetual perennialism: suggets that specific ethnic groups have existed continuously throughout history. Situational perennialism: suggests that nations and ethnic groups emerge, change and vanish through the course of history. Instrumentalist perennialism: views ethnicity primarily as a important tool that identify different ethnic groups and limits through time. Ethnicity is a mechanism of social stratification that is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement in society. Constructivism: both primordialist and perennialist views are basically flawed and rejects the notion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. Constructivism argues that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies. Modernist constructivism: correlates the emergence of ethnicity with the movement towards nation states. Ethnicity is an important means by which people may identify with a larger group. Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time Ethnic groups differ from other social groups, such as subculture, interest groups or social classes, because they emerge and change over historical periods (centuries) in a process known as ethnogenesis, a period of several generations of endogamy resulting in common ancestry (which is then sometimes cast in terms of a my ghologically narrative of a founding figure); ethnic identity is reinforced by reference to "boundary markers" - characteristics said to be unique to the group which set it apart from other groups Culture The term culture is a day to day word used mostly during conversations. The layman’s understanding of culture is ‘the total way of life of people in a society’. It is a word used mostly in different ways both by Sociologist and in everyday conversation. Definition: Culture as defined by, Edward B. Tylor, a British anthropologist, 1871 is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society. Ralph Linton (1945) submitted that ‘the culture of a society is the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation’. Christopher Jencks (1993) describes culture as ‘all which is symbolic: the learned aspects of human society’. Then to Matsumoto,, (1996) culture means the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviours shared by a group of people, but different for each individual, communicated from one generation to the next. Similarly, Spencer-Oatey (2008) asserts that culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientation to life, beliefs, policies, procedures, and behavioural conventions that are shared by a group and that influence (but do not determine) each member’s behavior and his/her interpretations of the meaning of other people’s behavior. Culture by sociologists means the belief of the society and their symbolic representation through its creative activities. Culture therefore is a product of the society, sustained by the society, reinforced by the society and transmitted to upcoming generations. It can be therefore regarded as sustainable and enduring. Scope: Culture is a universal phenomenon. There is no individual or society without culture. As Yoruba people have their own culture, so do the Igbo people, and other people around the world. However, cultural practices differ from one society to another (cultural diversity). Even though Nigeria is a single nation, yet, it is a multicultural society with over 250 ethnic groups. Each ethnic group in Nigeria has her unique and distinct culture practices. Cultural Diffusion: Despite the diversities in cultural practices, some elements are the same. A society’s cultural practices can be imported to and practiced in another society through a process called cultural diffusion. For instance, the wearing of shirt and trousers by Africans is a western culture. There are many aspects of the western culture that have been imbibed by and prevalent in other parts of the world. Cultural Shock: It is a situation when some of these practices are alien ad unfamiliar to a particular society. For example, a man wearing skirt and walking on the street of Ibadan will be almost regarded as a mad man. Types of Culture: Culture can be categorized into types namely material and non-material culture. (a) Material culture consist of those material things created by human beings such as clothing, buildings, arts etc. they are physical, visible and products of human handiwork. (b) Non-material aspects of culture include ideas, beliefs, and values. Forms of Culture: The different forms of culture are: i. High culture: this refer to cultural creations that have a particularly high status. For examples, unique art, music and literatures. ii. Folk culture: this refers to the culture of ordinary people, especially, those residing in pre-industrial societies. This arises from the grassroots, is self-created and autonomous and directly reflects the lives and experiences of the people (strinati, 1995). Examples of folk culture include traditional folk songs and traditional stories that have been handed down from generation to generation. Most stories relayed to us under the tree in moonlight at night by the elderly people in our communities are part of the folk culture. iii. Mass culture: In contrast to folk culture, mass culture is a product of industrial societies. It is essentially a product of the mass media. Example include popular feature films, recorded pop music, chats through whatsapps, twitter, linkdln, Instagram etc iv. Popular culture: This includes any cultural products appreciated by large numbers of ordinary people with no great pretensions to cultural expertise. For example, TV programmes (big brother Naija), pop music, mass market films. v. Sub-culture: this is a term widely used by sociologist to refer to ‘groups of people that have something in common with each other which distinguishes them in a significant way from other social groups. This is a characteristic of settled migrants in another community different from theirs having a different culture from that of the larger community. For example, the Hauser people in Sabo in Ibadan have a sub culture different from the prevailing cultural practices of the town. vi. Global culture: Global culture is in contrast to sub culture. The idea of global culture implies the society is becoming part of one all-embracing culture that affects all parts of the world. The society becoming a global village through globalization, thereby sharing same ideas, beliefs, practices and actives. Characteristics of culture a. Culture is learned b. Culture is shared c. Culture is social d. Culture is transmitted from one generation to another e. Culture is continuous f. Culture is acquisitive g. Culture is relative h. Culture is universal The elements of culture 1. Symbols: This refers to whatsoever carries particular meaning recognized by people of the same culture. 2. Language: it is a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another. 3. Values: Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, beauty and many other things that serves as broad guidelines for social living. 4. Beliefs: Specific statements that people hold to be true 5. Norms: Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members. The two types of norms are mores and folkways. Mores are norms that are widely observed and have a great moral significance. Folkways are norms for routine, casual interaction 7. Artifacts: Distinct material objects, such as architecture, technologies, and artistic creations. 8. Social institutions: Patterns of organization and relationships regarding governance, production, socializing, education, knowledge creation, arts, and relating to other cultures. Summary of Lecture 1 In Lecture 1, you have learned that: 1. People may be defined as any group of human beings (men, women and children). 2. There are three perspectives to the concept of people: cultural perspectives; social perspectives and geographical perspectives. 3. There are four levels of relationship. 4. Culture is a way of life of a people. Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Lecture 1 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 1.1 (tests learning outcome 1.1) How can we describe the people living in Nigeria as a people? SAQ 1.2 (tests learning outcome 1.2) Itemize and describe the various perspective of defining people? SAQ 1.3 (tests learning outcome 1.3) In what way or ways will you define people as a sociological concept? SAQ 1.4 (tests learning outcome 1.4) Itemize and describe the levels of relationship of a people. SAQ 1.5 (tests learning outcome 1.5) Identify and briefly discuss the two types of culture Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Lecture 1 SAQ 1.1: The people in Nigeria can be defined as a people because they are in a group. SAQ 1.2: People can be defined based on culture, social and geographical perspective. SAQ1.3: The levels of interactions among people are the ways we can show the sociological concept. SAQ 1.4: Relationship can be sub-ordinate, ordinary, political, family member relationship. SAQ 1.5: Material and non-material culture. FurtherReading 1. Falola T 2001 Culture and Customs of Nigeria. Durham: Carolina Academic Pres 2. Jegede AS 2007 Cultural symbols and health communication in Yoruba setting of Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Environment and Culture. 4(1): 1-15. 3. Otite O & Ogionwo W 2007 (edn.) Introduction to sociology. Ibadan: Heinemann. 4. Oke EA 1984 An introduction to social anthropology. Ibadan: Longman. 5. Onwuejeogwu MA 1992 The social anthropology of Africa: an introduction. Ibadan: Heinemann and Books Nigeria. 2. The Nigeria State 2.1. Introduction In this study session you will be familiarize with the Nigeria state, the historical background of Nigeria, factors favouring the emergence of the Nigeria state and the problem associated with the emergence of the Nigeria state. From the onset you need to known that Nigeria is an emergence of specific historical antecedent. You may want to ask, what then is the historical background of Nigeria people? What are the factors favouring the emergence of Nigeria state? What are the problems associated with the emergence of the Nigeria state? Learning Outcomes for Lecture 2 When you have studied this session, you should be able to: 2.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 2.1, 2.2, 2.4) 2.2 Describe the process that leads to the emergence of Nigeria state (SAQs 2.1, 2.2,) 2.3 State the factors favouring the emergence of the Nigeria state (2.3) 2.4 Describe the problems associated with the emergence of the Nigeria state (SAQs2.1 and 2.4). 2.1 Historical Background of Nigeria 2.1.1 Geography of Nigeria Location: Western Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea, between Benin and Cameroon Geographic coordinates: 10 00 N, 8 00 E Area: total: 923,768 sq km – land: 910,768 sq km – water: 13,000 sq km Area - comparative: slightly more than twice the size of California Land boundaries: – total: 4,047 km – border countries: Benin 773 km, Cameroon 1,690 km, Chad 87 km, Niger 1,497 km Coastline: 853 km 2.1.2. Administrative divisions Population: 140 m (2006 Census) 36 states and 1 capital territory in Abuja. The states are: Abia, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bauchi, Bayelsa, Benue, Borno, Cross River, Delta, Ebonyi, Edo, Ekiti, Enugu, Gombe, Imo, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara, Lagos, Nassarawa, Niger, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Oyo, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto, Taraba, Yobe, and Zamfara. 2.1.3. Early History Archaeological research showed that people were already living in southwestern Nigeria (specifically Iwo-Eleru) as early as 9000 BC and perhaps earlier at Ugwuelle-Uturu (Okigwe) in southeastern Nigeria, where microliths were used Smelting furnaces at Taruga dating from the 4th century BC provide the oldest evidence of metalworking in Archaeology. Microlithic and ceramic industries were also developed by savanna pastoralists from at least the 4th millennium BC and were continued by subsequent agricultural communities In the south, hunting and gathering gave way to subsistence farming in the first millennium BC and the cultivation of staple foods. Kainji Dam excavations revealed ironworking by the 2nd century BC. The transition from Neolithic times to the Iron Age apparently was achieved without intermediate bronze production. Some scholars speculate that the smelting process was transmitted from the Mediterranean by Berbers Others suggest the technology moved west from the Nile Valley, although the Iron Age in the Niger River valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years. The earliest identified iron using Nigerian culture is that of the Nok people who thrived between approximately 900 BC and 200 AD on the Jos Plateau in northeastern Nigeria. Information is lacking from the first millennium AD following the Nok ascendancy, but by the 2nd millennium AD there was active trade from North Africa through the Sahara to the forest, with the people of the savanna acting as intermediaries in exchanges of various goods by mfonini usoro. Calabar Kingdim Ibibio Kingdom and Calabar Kingdom Ibibio States and States in Calabar Igbo States Ijaw Kingdom Kanem Bornu Kingdom Northern Kingdoms of the Savanna Nri Kingdom Oyo and Benin Kingdom Yoruba Kingdoms and Beini 2.2 Factors Favouring the Emergence of the Nigeria State Following the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior, in 1885 British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900 the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time. In 1914 the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria Administratively Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. 2.3 Emergence of the Nigeria state 1960 to date 2.3.1 Nigerian Independence 1960-1979 Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960 under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary government and a substantial measure of self-government for the country's three regions. From 1959 to 1960, Jaja Wachuku was the First black Speaker of the Nigerian Parliament - also called the House of Representatives. Wachuku replaced Sir Frederick Metcalfe of Great Britain. Notably, as First Speaker of the House, Jaja Wachuku received Nigeria's Instrument of Independence - also known as Freedom Charter - on October 1, 1960, from Princess Alexandra of Kent, the Queen's representative at the Nigerian independence ceremonies. The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policy. The monarch of Nigeria was still head of state but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court Political parties, however, tended to reflect the make up of the three main ethnic groups. The NPC (Nigerian people's Congress) represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa interests, and dominated the Northern Region. The NCNC (National Convention of Nigerian Citizens), was Igbo - and Christian-dominated, ruling in the Eastern Region, and the AG (Action Group) was a left-leaning party that controlled the Yoruba west. The first post-independence National Government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, becoming Nigeria's first Prime Minister. The Yoruba-dominated AG became the opposition under its charismatic leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo. 2.3.2. First Republic In October 1963 Nigeria proclaimed itself a Federal Republic, and former Governor General Nnamdi Azikiwe became the country's first President. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic and religious tensions were magnified by the disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north. 2.3.3. Military Intervention On January 15, 1966 a group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions The federal military government that assumed power under General Aguiyi-Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country Its efforts to abolish the federal structure raised tensions and led to another coup by largely northern officers in July 1966, which established the leadership of Major General Yakubu Gowon The subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the southeast where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged 2.3.4 Civil War In a move towards greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups the military divided the four regions into 12 states However the Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east On May 29, 1967 Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the Republic of Biafra The ensuing Nigerian Civil War resulted in an estimated one million deaths before ending in the defeat of Biafra in 1970. 2.3.5 Second Republic Second Republic: 1979 – 1999 A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly In August 1983 Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results On December 31, 1983 the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member General Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985 Babangida cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after secret trials before military tribunals 2.3.6 Militocracy In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level Despite low turnout there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new election format was selected The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993 with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola won a decisive victory However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil 2.3.7 Transitional Government Babangida was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman who was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994 With the country sliding into chaos Defence Minister Sani Abacha assumed power and forced Shonekan's resignation on November 17, 1993 Abacha died of heart failure on June 8, 1998 and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar The emergence of democracy in Nigeria on May 29 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. 2.3.8 Creation of state 19 states – 1987 21 states – 1991 30 states - 1992 36 states – 1995 Reasons: – Ethnic prejudice leading – Marginalization – Development 2.4 Factors favouring the emergence of the Nigeria state Population Climatic Ethnic diversity Religious diversity 2.5 Problems associated with the emergence of the Nigeria state Ethnicity Religious problems Bad governance Military intervention Civil war Oil Corruption ¬¬¬¬¬Activity 2.1 Take a moment to reflect on what you have read so far. Based on your learning experience, and knowledge about the Nigeria state, note down some of the historical antecedent which encompassed the emergence of the Nigeria state? Activity 1.1 Feedback: Take a look at figure 1.3; it portrays the various people group called Nigerian. This shows that Nigeria is multi-culture. Figure 1.3: Nigeria Map showing ethnic groups. Summary of Lecture 2 In Lecture 2, you have learned that: 1. Nigeria is a product of specific historical antecedents. 2. Geographic coordinates of Nigeria is: 10 00 N, 8 00 E; Area: total: 923,768 sq km; border countries: Benin 773 km, Cameroon 1,690 km, Chad 87 km, Niger 1,497 km 3. Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960 under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary government. 4. Factors such as Population, Climatic, Ethnic diversity, Religious diversity among others favours the emergence of Nigeria. 5. Ethnicity, Religious problems, Bad governance, Military intervention, Civil war, Oil and Corruption are problem facing Nigeria. Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Lecture 2 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 2.1 (tests learning outcome 2.1) How can we correctly describe the process that leads to the emergence of Nigeria state? SAQ 2.2 (tests learning outcome 2.2) Explain the geography and history of Nigeria state? SAQ 2.3 (tests learning outcome 2.3) State the factors favouring the emergence of the Nigeria state? SAQ 2.4 (tests learning outcome 2.4) Describe the problems associated with the emergence of the Nigeria state? Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Lecture 2 SAQ 2.1: Nigeria is a product of specific historical antecedents and amagamation of colonail masters. SAQ 2.2: The location, areas, land boundaries and administrative division. SAQ 2.3: Factors such as Population, Climatic, Ethnic diversity, Religious diversity among others SAQ 2.4: Ethnicity, Religious problems, Bad governance, Military intervention, Civil war, Oil and Corruption Module 2: ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE PEOPLES OF NIGERIA Peoples of the Savannah Peoples of the Forest Peoples of the Mangrove Peoples of the Middle Belt Factors that have affected the indigenous culture Leaning Objectives: To guide students to understand the variations among the peoples of Nigeria living in different ecological zones and how the variation influences the social and cultural characteristics of the people. Learning Outcomes: 1. Students should be able to understand the differences among the different ecological zones 2. Students should be able to relate the social and cultural characteristics of the people of Nigeria to the different ecological zones. Introduction Recap of Culture (Material and Non-Material culture, using practical examples of different people in Nigeria and in other parts of the world). Ethnography: This refers to the description of a group of people. In other words, identifying the features and ways of life that distinguish a group of people from another. Vegetation, climate and environment of people affect their culture and this will enable us understand and appreciate better the importance of climate and environment in the analysis of peoples’ culture. For example, the type of vegetation will determine the culture of people in relation to their clothing, feeding, shelter, belief system and so on. Climate and vegetations are important factors that shaped cultural groupings in West Africa. Besides shaping differences in societies, these factors determine the level of technology, economy and politics in different societies (Gordon and Gordon, 1996). In other words, environment plays a prominent role in shaping people’s culture, suggesting that culture depends on environment. Environment determines the technology and economy as well as the politics plays in a particular society. Among the different regions in Nigeria, available resources within the environment determine the nature and culture of the people. People of the Savannah For political classification in Nigeria, the term Hausa-Fulani is often used for the Hausa and Fulani in Northern Nigeria. The name merged the two ethnic categories. This is not to deny the similarities between the two groups, but it is also important to note the disparities between both of them as they constitute two distinct ethnic groups. In the contemporary Nigeria, the Hausa and Fulani are predominantly found in Northern Nigeria. Northern Nigeria is a combination of three geopolitical zones: northwest, northeast and north central zones. These three zones together constitute the 19 northern states. Vegetation, climate and environment of the Savannah region The tropical continental air mass brings dry, dusty winds (harmattan) from the Sahara desert and that is why the atmosphere is always windy and dusty. There is less rainfall compared to the south, and that is why the vegetation is mostly grassland. The North with its lower rainfall and shorter rainy season consists of savannah land. The landmass is good for cultivation of grains, which constitute their major food items and forms an excellent natural habitat for a large number of grazing livestock, such as cattle, goats, sheep, horses, camels, and donkeys. (What are the agricultural products common in the north?) The most common food that the Hausa/fulani people prepare consists of grains, such as sorghum, millet, rice, or maize, which are ground into flour for a variety of different kinds of dishes. This food is popularly known as tuwo in the Hausa language. The region is noted for its hot temperature and this has influenced the types of dresses and houses common in the north. What are the common garments? Their homes are generally made of grass or dried mud with thatched roofs. Islam is the dominant religion among the Hausa/Fulani. Islamic prescriptions and proscriptions greatly influence most of the cultural practices. Because of the strong influence of Islam, traditional religion has almost faded away in the North, compared with the South. The traditional bori cult or religion is gradually fading out. It is also important to note the blend of cultural practices with Islamic precepts. Hence, the line between religion and culture is very thin and unclear. The Hausa/Fulani society is religiously conservative and fatalistic by attributing both natural and artificial occurrences (social problems at large) to God. The statement ‘Allah yakau’ (All things come from God) is very pervasive. This may serve as conservative stance to social change or even development. Mode of Dressing The Hausa people have a restricted dress code related to their religious beliefs. The men are easily recognizable because of their elaborate dress which is a large flowing gown known as Babban riga and a robe called a jalamia and juanni (see Senegalese kaftan). These large flowing gowns usually feature some elaborate embroidery designs around the neck. (See Grand boubou for more information). Men also wear colorful embroidered caps known as hula. Depending on their location and occupation, they may wear a turban around this to veil the face (known as Alasho or Tagelmust). The women can be identified by wrappers called abaya, made with colorful cloth, accompanied by a matching blouse, head tie and shawl. Marriage in Hausaland ‘Marriage’ is a socio-cultural and religious obligation in Hausa society. In Hausa society, the father has the right to choose a partner for his daughter most often without her consent (she may later agree in order to obey the father). The most important criteria in Hausa marriage are acceptance by the bride’s parents and bride-price. Akinfeleye, et al. (1997) observed that marriage process usually starts with courtship which is usually competitive as many men may be proposing to one lady. The courtship process is guided by strict cultural prescriptions (most of which have Islamic origin). The proposed bride and suitor usually have limited contact, and the courtship is usually as short as possible. Early or girl marriage is still encouraged in Hausa society. Age at first marriage in the North is still around 15 for girls (NPC and ICRO, 2009). The major reason for this early marriage is to control promiscuity or fornication and to encourage virgin marriage. The process of formalizing union usually involved a number of steps. After initiation of interest and visit by the suitor’s parents to the bride’s parents, all gifts (especially material gifts) given to the girl by other ‘competitors’ must be returned. In Hausa culture, divorce is permitted, and polygyny is also common. A man may marry up to four wives. The major task is to be available to the wives. He has to allocate/share days and nights of the week equally among the wives. The authority of the household is vested in maigida (male family head). In most house communities, purdah or seclusion of women (Kulle) is still in practice. In the kulle system, the women’s quarters are separate within the household, and there is strict restriction for a male adult (including relative or off-springs) from entering the women quarters. It is usual to see for ‘ba siga’ (‘do not enter’) inscribed in the azure (compound entrance). The seclusion is to ensure sexual modesty and privacy for the womenfolk. This is also why most male visitors are usually entertained at the azure. The notion of kunya (shyness or modesty) is cultural for an Hausa women, especially in public sphere. This is why it is often uncommon for Hausa woman to dance in public or discuss sensitive issues in the public domain. For instance, it is culturally frowned at for an Hausa woman to discuss sexual issues even with her partner. This promotes culture of silence, and it might be inimical for the promotion of sexual health and rights. Due to kunya, an average Hausa woman is very quiet in public domain especially where there are male counterparts. Gender Structure in Hausa society There is a distinct gender division of labour between the sexes in Hausa society. This distinction goes along private and public domains. Women are often confined to the private domain especially for domestic duties, while men are mostly in the public domain. Private domain means within domestic realm most often in secluded quarters with limited opportunities to venture into the public realm. There is high rate of non-working women (especially married) in Hausa society. Hence, there are many female degree holders who are confined to the private sphere, thereby not allowed to be employed in the public and industrial sectors. While there are market women in the southern part of Nigeria, there are mostly market men among the Hausa. The prevalence of market men is predominantly because all forms of trading (whether small or large scale) in the public domain are mostly undertaken by men among the Hausa. The man (husband) is responsible for all his wife (or wives) needs, including clothing, food, firewood, house rent or shelter, up to cosmetics and other personal needs. The wife, in turn, carries out complementary domestic duties, including raising of children Although, generally, literacy rate is lower in the north, women are more disadvantaged in the educational sector. Girl-child’s educational aspiration is hampered by child-marriage and seclusion (after marriage) which prevent a majority of them from continuing their education. Very limited opportunities for vocational training exist for married women. Those who eventually have secondary or postsecondary education may not be permitted to work or only allowed to venture into less public-oriented employment. There are still very few female Hausa bankers, doctors, nurses and even civil servants (especially compared to female employment in the southern part of Nigeria). While women’s educational aspiration is hampered, there is emphasis on gender concordance (in treatment) in the hospital. In order to avoid male consultation for female, many women do not attend the hospital or are not allowed to do so to protect the privacy of the female body. This has a lot of adverse implications for maternal health. A typical Hausa/Fulani woman is largely dependent on her husband for decision-making and material support. Amzat (2011) observed that major decisions regarding reproductive, sexual and child health are made by the husband. This level of dependence also shows that her autonomy is largely compromised because of patriarchy. The control of her body, movement and activities are largely done by her husband. Although a Hausa woman also has some rights over her husband, practically such rights are restrictive. The cultural milieu (often different from religious context) is more relevant in the regulation of family affairs and particularly gender framework. Due to high rate of non-working women and low literacy level, there is high rate of dependency among the Hausa of northern Nigeria. This also accounts for high rate of poverty in the north (see Soludo, 2007; Adegbola, 2008). Those that work contribute little to the national economy (in form of petty home trading). The Hausa women have little contributions to the national economy because their predominant activities are hidden, coupled with low participation in the work force. The foregoing descriptions of Hausa women apply to substantial majority, while there are few who constitute exceptions to the normative rule. They have crossed the cultural border and have become known nationwide and worldwide. The hausanisation and assimilation policy in the north have made most Christians to accept Muslim names for their offspring. This is why it is difficult to differentiate muslim and Christian from the north by names. It is this Hausanization that Ochonu (2008) described as internal colonialism of the minority groups in northern Nigeria. PEOPLE OF THE FOREST REGION The forest region covers the area below the fringes of the Rivers Niger and Benue downward the southern Nigeria to the coastal territory of the Bight of Benin It comprises three geo-political zones of the country namely the south-west, the south-east and the south-south. In the South-west, we have the Yoruba as the predominant group while the Igbo is the predominant group in the South-east. There are numerous other ethnic groups in this region. Some of these are the Ijaw in the South-South, the itshekiris, Uhrobo, Ibibio, Efik, Kalabari etc The forest region can be further divided into two namely: the evergreen forest and the mangrove forest. a. People of the Forest Region (Evergreen) The evergreen forest refers to the non-coastal areas which include the states in the south west and south east of the nation. The forest region is blessed with heavy rainfall, expansive fertile land and good climatic conditions favourable to the production of plants and animals. Traditionally, the forest people practise subsistence farming and to some extent, aqua economy. There is the cultivation of both cash crops and food crops of various types. Many of the cash crops include rubber, kolanut, cocoa, coffee, palm tree, coconut while food crops include yam, maize, cassava, plantain, cocoyam and so on. Yam is very important to the people of the forest region, and this is why they have elaborate celebration of the new yam festival as an important element of their culture. In addition to farming and fishing, the forest people also practise various craft works such as basket weaving, iron smiting, mat weaving, metal working, wood carving, bead making, leather works and so on. Cocoa and coffee are mainly produced among the Yoruba and Edo people in mid western states while rubber and palm tree are predominantly produced among the Igbo people. Many of the forest people are patrilineal in nature; major economic resources and factors of production such as land and capital are largely owned by the men, hence they dominate the farming activities. Forest region is the most densely populated region in Nigeria hence there is strong competition for possession of land. This accounts for incessant communal clashes among the people of the region. The people of the evergreen forest believe in the existence of God the almighty and they address him by many names such as Olorun, Olodumare among the Yoruba, and Chukwu, Chineke among the Igbo people. In the traditional societies, it is believed that God is too supreme to be worshipped directly hence the worship of numerous other lesser gods or goddesses. Many of these deities and gods are associated with rivers, animals, forests, trees, caves, mountains and other natural objects related to their vegetations. Igbo people have a strong belief in personal Chi which can be likened to Ori among the Yoruba people. Among the Yoruba, there are numerous gods and deities such as Osun, Ogun, Sango, Oya and so on. Masquerade festivals occupy important places in the culture of the people of the forest region of Nigeria because they are seen as the link with the spiritual world. Naming ceremonies are held with feasting and pride. While the naming of new babies takes place on the eighth day among the Yoruba, it takes place largely after three months among the Igbo people. Among the people of the forest, names given to new children are associated with events as at the time of birth or associated with some gods. Examples among the Yoruba include Abidemi, Tokunbo, Babatunde, Kokumo, Ogunbiyi, Ifagbemi. Among the Igbo, major markets include Afor, Nkwo, Eke. Children born on these markets days are often named to reflect the markets. For example, Okafor, Okonkwo, Okeke etc. (Other examples include: Ada meaning first female child; Obi, first male child; Ngozi meaning blessing etc. Among the Yoruba, twins are elaborately welcomed and celebrated and they have fixed names for them namely Taiwo and Kehinde. Among the Igbo, in the past twins were seen as evil spirits hence they were killed at birth until Mary Slessors stopped the practice in 1864. Traditionally, marriages are celebrated with lots of traditional fun fares and the Igbo people are noted for their high bride price during marriages. In terms of burial, there are elaborate and different rites to be observed so as to properly send the dead to the world beyond and make them rest well. This is unlike the Savannah people whose burial rites are strictly within the Islamic prescriptions. Palm wine and kolanut are important elements of all ceremonies among the Igbo people. There is the pouring of libation and breaking of kolanuts, both can only be done by men and never by women. The people of the forest region practise polygyny: a man can marry many wives thereby having many children who are seen as sources of manpower in farming activities. Among the Igbo, there is separate ban for each wife and they take turn to sleep with the husband. In terms of dressing, the Yoruba people are noted for traditional dresses such as agbada, soro and buba, kembe, dansiki for man, and iro and buba for the women. Aso ofi/ aso oke is well cherished for special occasions. The major traditional dishes include iyan ,eba, amala, while the soups include ewedu, gbegiri, isapa and so on. Among the Igbo people, women are noted for colourful up and down, beads while men are noted for top and wrapper, singlet and wrapper, walking sticks, and red caps among the chiefs (ozo). On food items, they are noted for fufu, pounded yam, gari, draw soup, bitter leaf soup, egusi soup and so on. The Igbos are also noted for belief in divination, as diviners are always consulted to find out about the destiny of new babies and to ascertain the prospects of major decisions and steps in people’s lives. They also have strong belief in Ogbanje, just as the Yoruba do in Abiku. In all, both Yoruba and Igbo people share a lot of similarities in terms of their cultural practices, despite their distinctive ethnic origin. b. People of the Forest Region (Mangrove) The mangrove region covers the coastal areas stretching from Badagry in Lagos, through Ilaje in Ondo state, to the Niger Delta covering Edo, Delta, Akwa Ibom, Rivers, Bayelsa states. Over 50% of the core Niger Delta area is made up of wetlands and the region hosts a multitude of aquatic animals such as fish, oysters, periwinkles, crabs, shrimps, tortoise, sea snake, anaconda, crocodiles, iguana, alligators and the like. The Niger Delta area is a region of multifarious minority groups and there are many groups along linguistic and cultural lives. (The major categorization of the people include: The Ijoid, Edoid, Delta-Cross, Igboid and Yoruboid). Much of what has been described about the evergreen forest people also apply to the people of the mangrove forest. This region is noted for high deposit of crude petroleum oil, high rainfall, wetlands and so on. Traditionally, the mangrove forest people practise aqua economy. The aqua economy involves large scale fishing and collection of other aquatic animals. The region is blessed with excessive rainfall which makes it suitable for fishing along the costal areas. They largely have aquatic cultures by virtue of their historical experiences and vegetation/climate. Aquatic culture refers to ways of life and practices related to water, fishing and selling of fishing products and materials. The indigenous people of this region depend on the mangrove resources for food and shelter. There is abundance of different varieties of raffia palm which provides a very rich source of roofing materials, baskets, fish traps, brooms, hats, palm wine and local gin (ogogoro) for the inhabitants of the region. However, in spite of these great natural potentials of this region, its topography and hydrology generate environmental challenges. A major challenge is flooding which is due to the excessive rainfall and this affects the patterns of human life and economic activities. Before the era of petroleum, most families among these ethnic groups were held together by ancestral worship and shrines dedicated to water deities and land deities. Environmental consideration played a vital part in the choice of objects of worship. This suggests that the water bodies are not just sources of occupational practices but also avenues through which they relate with spiritual forces. The people believe in the existence of Almighty God who is supreme and they locally call him by names such as Oghene, Osanobuwa, Osenobuwa. They also believe in other gods and goddesses especially water goddesses or sea gods. Some of these gods include erio, olokun. Some of them also have annual fishing and feasting festivals. The use of local gin (Ogogoro) constitutes a very important element of their religious life, marriage system and other ceremonies. It is used not just for pleasure but also for all social occasions and ceremonies. People of the Middle Belt The middle belt is a human geographical term designating the region of central Nigeria populated largely by minority ethnic groups and stretching across the country longitudinally. The region is characterised by the existence of small ethnic groups and lacks designated borders and is characterised by a heterogeneity and diversity of peoples and cultures. The groups with considerable population include the Tivs, Nupes, Gwari while other smaller ones include the Jukuns, Mumuye, Biron, Jiras, Bassa and so on. Areas often referred to as belonging to the middle belt are: Kwara state, Kogi state, Benue state, Plateau state, Nasarawa state, Niger state, Taraba state, Adamawa state, as well as the southern parts of Kaduna, Kebbi, Bauchi, Gombe and Borno states. The definition of the middle belt is subject to great debate due to the presence of significant number of Hausa, Fulani and Kanuri groups. In addition, the Yoruba of Kwara and Kogi states have a strong affinity with the larger Yoruba body and at times prefer not to be associated with the middle belt identity. In essence, the people of the middle belt share cultural elements with the people of the savannah region and the people of the forest region. The main traditional occupation of these people is farming with high production of Yam. Other products include guinea corn, millet, cassava farming and so on. Yam cultivation is mainly a male occupation in this region and there is abundance of land. Nigeria’s two major rivers: the Niger and Benue with their tributaries flow through this region and provide opportunity for large scale fishing especially among those communities living within the immediate vicinity of the main rivers. The people generally believe in the existence of the Supreme Being, God known variously as Ashili among the Kurama, Aondo among the Tiv, Katakuru among the Gwarza and so on. Apart from God, there are other forces such as ancestral spirits. Belief in witches, magic and sorcery seem to be predominant in communities like the Igala, Jukun and Tiv. While among the Tiv, men tend to be witches, the witches of the Nupe and Gwari are largely women. CONCLUSION In general, in Nigeria, there are diverse cultural practices showing the uniqueness of the different groups making up Nigeria, but despite the diversity, the people of Nigeria still have many cultural practices together. For example, they place high regard on respect for the elderly. For example, how do the Yoruba, the Igbo and Hausa/Fulani greet or show respect (Demonstrations) The people of Nigerian generally practise polygyny, that is, men can marry as many wives as possible. Also, the people of Nigeria place emphasis on hard-work as a virtue and important element of their culture. People are socialized to imbibe the values of diligence, hard-work, dignity of labour and responsibility. Lessons about hard-work were and are still taught through songs, stories, proverbs and so on. For example, among the Yoruba, we have “Ise loogun ise” meaning “work is the antidote of poverty”; “owuro nise” meaning ‘don’t play with your early hood’. On the culture of work, according to Aluko, the Yoruba tend to strike a balance between the opposite extremes represented by the Igbo and Hausa. While the Igbo people are largely individualistic, egalitarian and forceful, the Yoruba are largely collective. (Agbajowo lafi nsoya, owo kan o gberu dori). On the other hand, the Hausa/Fulani place a premium on deference to authority, obedience and loyalty to the views and demands of superiors. FACTORS THAT HAVE POLLUTED THE TRADITIONAL CULTURE OF THE PEOPLE OF NIGERIA The big question is, can we really talk of the pure traditional culture of the peoples of Nigeria?. The answer is obviously No. What is largely applicable today is foreign culture in terms of types and ways of dressing, types and ways of eating, shelter/housing, foreign language (English), respect and mode of greeting, hairstyles, marriage ceremonies and general life styles. The traditional economy has also been replaced with modern economy. In terms of comparison, it could be said that to a great extent, the Savannah people have retained much of their culture largely related to Islamic practices compared with other groups in Nigeria. What are the factors that have affected or polluted the cultures of the traditional people of Nigeria? These include the following: Western education Colonization Foreign Religions: Christianity and Islam Civilization Globalisation Western social life Mentality that foreign things are better etc Technology Module 3: Cultural diversity and National Development What is cultural diversity? Culture is the total ways of life of people It is unique to a group of people Where other groups have their own different cultures implies there is Cultural Diversity There may be cultural diversity in a nation where there are many different cultures co-existing in the nation What is cultural diversity? Nigeria is the third most ethnically and linguistically diverse country in the world after New Guinea and Indonesia Try and identify some of the different cultures in Nigeria using chapters 4-7 of our main text Cultural diversity and National development ‘Variety is the spice of life’ The diverse cultures have things, both material and non-material aspects of culture, that can enhance national development. What is national development? What is national development? Ability of nations to: Define their needs Identify means by which to satisfy those needs through the identification of the available object of labor, means of labor and labor itself Create institutions through which the needs would be met Determine when and how to enhance change in the needs E) Recreate institutions around the satisfaction of those needs Who are the people that would enhance national development? ‘The people’? Social stratification (ethnicity? Religion? (see ch.13 of the main text); Owners and non-owners of the means of labor? What are the different aspects of the diverse cultures that are relevant to the needs of the nations? Which are the relevant objects of labor, means of labor, and labor, from the different cultures, are relevant to the satisfaction of the needs? Identify the institutions that would manage the satisfaction of the needs from the different cultures What are the changes required over time in the needs? Identify the new institutions for the meeting of the new needs History of Nigeria (Please use chapters 2, 3,13 and 14 of the main text) noting: The ‘accidental’ nature of independence The ‘creation’ of the elites as foreign-dependent leaders Development defined as satisfying the needs of other nations The lack of synergy among the elites The disjuncture between the elites and the non-elites Do we have a Nigerian culture? The incorporation of diversity into the national planning 3) Cultural tourism 4) Source of exchange, innovation and creativity 5) Emphasis on local knowledge? Module 4: Cultural integration It is the strategically managed process of bringing the diverse cultures of a nation together and/or to make a whole out of the diverse cultures When cultures are successfully integrated, some aspects of cultures would fizzle out If not, there would be the need for respect of others’ culture No ethnocentrism or culture shock Factors influencing cultural and national identity: Strategic nature of national planning to identify the different aspects of culture relevant for cultural and national identity Inclusiveness Innovativeness and creativity in the merging of cultures It is the strategically managed process of bringing the diverse cultures of a nation together and/or to make a whole out of the diverse cultures When cultures are successfully integrated, some aspects of cultures would fizzle out If not, there would be the need for respect of others’ culture No ethnocentrism or culture shock Strategic nature of national planning to identify the different aspects of culture relevant for cultural and national identity Inclusiveness Innovativeness and creativity in the merging of cultures This week Module 5: Social and cultural change in Nigeria What is culture change? Culture change refers to the modification or alteration which take place in life pattern of people. It occurs because all societies are in a constant state of disequilibrium. Culture change is the change in society and society is a web of social relationships. Processes of Change All Cultures are inherently predisposed to change and, at the same time, to resist change. There are three general sources of influence or pressure that are responsible for both change and resistance to it: 1. forces at work within a society 2. contact between societies 3. changes in the natural environment Within a society, processes leading to change include invention and culture loss. Inventions may be either technological or ideological. The latter includes such things as the invention of algebra and calculus or the creation of a representative parliament as a replacement for rule by royal decree. Technological inventions include new tools, energy sources, and transportation methods as well as more frivolous and ephemeral things such as style of dress and bodily adornment. Processes that result in the resistance to change include: a. Habit and the integration of culture traits. Older people, in particular, are often reticent to replace their comfortable, long familiar cultural patterns. b. Habitual behavior provides emotional security in a threatening world of change. c. Religion also often provides strong moral justification and support for maintaining traditional ways. The processes leading to change that occur as a result of contact between societies are: 1. diffusion 2. acculturation 3. transculturation Diffusion is the movement of things and ideas from one culture to another. When diffusion occurs, the form of a trait may move from one society to another but not its original cultural meaning. For instance, when Mr Big's first brought their food to Nigeria, they were accepted as luxury foods for special occasions because they were relatively expensive and exotic. Acculturation is what happens to an entire culture when alien traits diffuse in on a large scale and substantially replace traditional cultural patterns. While acculturation is what happens to an entire culture when alien traits overwhelm it. Transculturation is what happens to an individual when he or she moves to another society and adopts its culture. Immigrants who successfully learn the language and accept as their own the cultural patterns of their adopted country have transculturated. In contrast, people who live as socially isolated expatriates in a foreign land for years without desiring or expecting to become assimilated participants in the host culture are not transculturating. Stimulus diffusion is a genuine invention that is sparked by an idea from another culture. There are processes operating in the contact between cultures as well that result in resistance to change. These are due to "us versus them" competitive feelings and perceptions. Ethnocentrism leads people to reject alien ideas and things as being unnatural and even immoral. These in-group-outgroup dynamics commonly result in resistance to acculturation and assimilation. Characteristics of Social Change: 1. Social Change is Social: Society is a “web of social relationships” and hence social change obviously means a change in the system of social relationships. Social relationships are understood in terms of social processes and social interactions and social organizations. Thus, the term social change is used to describe variation in social interactions, processes and social organizations. Only that change can be called social change whose influence can be felt in a community form. The changes that have significance for all or considerable segment of population can be considered as social change. 2. Social Change is Universal: Change is the universal law of nature. The social structure, social organization and social institutions are all dynamic. Social change occurs in all societies and at all times. No society remains completely static. Each society, no matter how traditional and conservative, is constantly undergoing change. Just as man’s life cannot remain static, so does society of all places and times. Here adjustment take place and here conflict breaks down adjustment. Here there is revolution and here consent. Here men desire for achieving new goals, and here they return to old ones. 3. Social Change occurs as an Essential law: Change is the law of nature. Social change is also natural. Change is an unavoidable and unchangeable law of nature. By nature we desire change. Our needs keep on changing to satisfy our desire for change and to satisfy these needs, social change becomes a necessity. The truth is that we are anxiously waiting for a change. According to Green, “The enthusiastic response of change has become almost way of life. 4. Social Change is Continuous: Society is an ever-changing phenomenon. It is undergoing endless changes. It is an “ongoing process”. These changes cannot be stopped. Society is subject to continuous change. Here it grows and decays, there it finds renewal, accommodates itself to various changing conditions. Society is a system of social relationship. But these social relationships are never permanent. They are subject to change. Society cannot be preserved in a museum to save it from the ravages of time. From the dawn of history, down to this day, society has been in flux. Social change manifests itself in different stages of human history. In ancient times when life was confined to caves (Stone Age), the social system was different from that of the computer age today. There is no fixity in human relationships. Circumstances bring about many a change in the behaviour patterns. 5. Social Change Involves No-Value Judgement: Social change does not attach any value judgement. It is neither moral nor immoral, it is amoral. The question of “what ought to be” is beyond the nature of social change. The study of social change involves no-value judgement. It is ethically neutral. A correct decision on what is empirically true is not the same as correct decision on what ought to be. 6. Social Change is Bound by Time Factors: Social change is temporal. It happens through time, because society exists only as a time-sequences. We know its meaning fully only by understanding it through time factors. There was less industrialisation in India during 50s. But in 90s, India has become more industrialized. Thus, the speed of social change differs from age to age. The reason is that the factors which cause social change do not remain uniform with the changes in time. 7. Rate and Tempo of Social Change is Uneven: Though social change is a must for each and every society, the rate, tempo, speed and extent of change is not uniform. It differs from society to society. In some societies, its speed is rapid; in another it may be slow. And in some other societies it occurs so slowly that it may not be noticed by those who live in them. For example, in the modern, industrial urban society the speed and extent of change is faster than traditional, agricultural and rural society. 8. Definite Prediction of Social Change is Impossible: It is very much difficult to make out any prediction on the exact forms of social change. A thousand years ago in Asia, Europe and Latin America the face of society was vastly different from that what exists today. But what the society will be in thousand years from now, no one can tell. 9. Social Change Shows Chain-Reaction Sequences: Society is a dynamic system of interrelated parts. Changes in one aspect of life may induce a series of changes in other aspects. For example, with the emancipation of women, educated young women find the traditional type of family and marriage not quite fit to their liking. 10. Social Change takes place due to Multi-Number of Factors: Social change is the consequence of a number of factors. A special factor may trigger a change but it is always associated with other factors that make the triggering possible. Social change cannot be explained in terms of one or two factors only and that various factors actually combine and become the ’cause’ of the change. M. Ginsberg observes: “A cause is an assemblage of factors which, in interaction with each other, undergo a change”. There is no single master key by which we can unlock all the doors leading to social change. As a matter of fact, social change is the consequence of a number of factors. 11. Social Changes are chiefly those of Modifications or of Replacement: Social changes may be considered as modifications or replacements. It may be modification of physical goods or social relationships. For example, the form of our breakfast food has changed. Though we eat the same basic materials such as meats, eggs corn etc. which we ate earlier, their form has been changed. Ready-to-eat cornflakes, breads, omelets are substituted for the form in which these same materials were consumed in earlier years. Further, there may be modifications of social relationships. For example, the old authoritarian family has become the small equalitarian family. Our attitudes towards women’s status and rights, religion, co-education etc. stand modified today. 12. Social Change may be Small-scale or Large-scale: A line of distinction is drawn between small-scale and large scale social change. Small-scale change refers to changes within groups and organizations rather than societies, culture or civilization. According W.E. Moore, by small-scale changes we shall mean changes in the characteristics of social structures that though comprised within the general system identifiable as a society, do not have any immediate and major consequences for the generalised structure (society) as such. 13. Short-term and Long-term Change: The conceptualization of the magnitude of change involves the next attribute of change, the time span. That is to say, a change that may be classified as ‘small-scale from a short-term perspective may turn out to have large-scale consequences when viewed over a long period of time, as the decreasing death rate since the 1960 in India exemplifies. 14. Social Change may be Peaceful or Violent: The term ‘violence’ frequently refers to the threat or use of physical force involved in attaining a given change. In certain sense, rapid change may ‘violently’ affect the emotions, values and expectations of those involved. According to W.E. Moore, “A ‘true’ revolution, a rapid and fundamental alternation in the institutions or normative codes of society and of its power distribution, is rapid and continuous by definition and is likely to be violent, but may well be orderly as opposed to erratic”. ‘Peaceful’ has to do with the changes that take place by consent, acceptance or acquisition and that are enforced by the normative restraints of society. 15. Social Change may be Planned or Unplanned: Social change may occur in the natural course or it is done by man deliberately. Unplanned change refers to change resulting from natural calamities, such as famines and floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruption etc. So social change is called as the unchangeable law of nature. The nature is never at rest. Planned social change occurs when social changes are conditioned by human engineering. Plans, programmes and projects are made by man in order to determine and control the direction of social change. 16. Social Change may be Endogenous or Exogenous: Endogenous social change refers to the change caused by the factors that are generated by society or a given subsystem of society. Conflict, communication, regionalism etc. are some of the examples of endogenous social change. Exogenous sources of social change generally view society as a basically stable, well-integrated system that is disrupted or altered only by the impact of forces external to the system (e.g., world situation, wars, famine) or by new factors introduced into the system from other societies. For example, technological transfer and brain drain, political and cultural imperialism may lead to the diffusion of cultural traits beyond the limits of single societies. 17. Change Within and Change of the System: The distinction between kinds of change has been developed by Talcott Parsons in his analysis of change ‘within’ and change ‘of the system, i.e., the orderly process of ongoing change within the boundaries of a system, as opposed to the process resulting in changes of the structure of the system under consideration. Conflict theorists draw our attention to the fact that the cumulative effect of change ‘within’ the system may result in a change ‘of’ the system. Factors of Change 1. Physical Environment: Major changes in the physical environment are very compelling when they happen. Climates change, soil erodes and lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is greatly affected by such changes although sometimes they come about so slowly that they are largely unnoticed. Human misuse can bring very rapid changes in physical environment which in turn change the social and cultural life of a people. Deforestation brings land erosion and reduces rainfall. Much of the wasteland and desert land of the world is a testament to human ignorance and misuse. Environmental destruction has been at least a contributing factor in the fall of most great civilization. Many human groups throughout history have changed their physical environment through migration. In the primitive societies whose members are very directly dependent upon their physical environment migration to a different environment brings major changes in the culture. Civilization makes it easy to transport a culture and practice it in a new and different environment 2. Population changes: A population change is itself a social change but also becomes a casual factor in further social and cultural changes. When a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the hospitality pattern fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structures grow more elaborate and many other changes follow. A stable population may be able to resist change but a rapidly growing population must migrate, improve its productivity or starve. Migration encourages further change for it brings a group into a new environment subjects it to new social contacts and confronts it with new problems. No major population change leaves the culture unchanged. 3. Isolation and Contact: Societies located at world crossroads have always been centres of change. Since most new traits come through diffusion, those societies in closest contact with other societies are likely to change most rapidly. Conversely isolated areas are centers of stability, conservatism and resistance to change. 4. Social Structure: The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle and not immediately apparent ways. A society which vests great authority in the very old people is likely to be conservative and stable. According to Ottenberg a society which stresses conformity and trains the individual to be highly responsive to the group is less receptive to the change than a society who are highly individualistic and tolerate considerable cultural variability. A highly centralized bureaucracy is very favourable to the promotion and diffusion of change although bureaucracy has sometimes been used in an attempt to suppress change usually with no more than temporary success. When a culture is very highly integrated so that each element is rightly interwoven with all the others in a mutually interdependent system change is difficult and costly. But when the culture is less highly integrated so that work, play, family, religion and other activities are less dependent upon one another change is easier and more frequent. A tightly structured society wherein every person's roles, duties, privileges and obligations are precisely and rigidly defined is less given to changes than a more loosely structured society wherein roles, lines of authority, privileges and obligations are more open to individual rearrangement. 5. Attitudes and Values: To people in developed nations and societies change is normal. Children there are socialized to anticipate and appreciate change. Societies differ greatly in their general attitude toward change. People who revere the past and preoccupied with traditions and rituals will change slowly and unwillingly. When a culture has been relatively static for a long time the people are likely to assume that it should remain so indefinitely. They are intensely and unconsciously ethnocentric; they assume that their customs and techniques are correct and everlasting. Every changing society has its liberals and its conservatives. Literate and educated people tend to accept changes more readily than the illiterate and uneducated. Attitudes and values affect both the amount and the direction of social change. Cultural Factor influences the direction and character of technological change Culture not only influences our social relationships, it also influences the direction and character of technological change. It is not only our beliefs and social institutions must correspond to the changes in technology but our beliefs and social institutions determine the use to which the technological inventions will be put. Cultural factors such as habits, customs, traditions, conservatism, traditional values etc. may resist the technological inventions. On the other hand factors such as breakdown in the unity of social values, the diversification of social institutions craving for the new thoughts, values etc. may contribute to technological inventions. Technological changes do not take place on their own. They are engineered by men only. Technology is the creation of man. Men are always moved by ideas, thoughts, values, beliefs, morals and philosophies etc. These are the elements of culture. These sometimes decide or influence the direction in which technology undergoes change. Men are becoming more and more materialistic in their attitude. This change in the attitude and outlook is reflected in the technological field. Thus in order to lead a comfortable life and to minimize the manual labour man started inventing new techniques, machines, instruments and devices. 6. Technological Factors: The technological factors represent the conditions created by man which have a profound influence on his life. In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfil his needs and to make his life more comfortable man creates civilization. Technology is a by-product of civilization.When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems in life it becomes technology. Technology is a systematic knowledge which is put into practice that is to use tools and run machines to serve human purpose. Social change is usually the effect of the use of technology. According to Karl Marx even the formation of social relations and mental conceptions and attitudes are dependent upon technology. He has regarded technology as a sole explanation of social change. W.F Ogburn says technology changes society by changing our environment to which we in turn adapt. These changes are usually in the material environment and the adjustment that we make with these changes often modifies customs and social institutions. A single invention may have innumerable social effects. Radio for example has One of the most extreme expressions of the concern over the independence of technology is found in Jacques Ellul's 'the technological society'. Ellul claims that in modern industrial societies technologism has engulfed every aspect of social existence in much the same way Catholicism did in the middle ages. The loss of human freedom and the large-scale destruction of human beings are due to the increasing use of certain types of technology which has begun to threaten the life support systems of the earth as a whole. Effect of Social Change on Social Institutions 1. Family: Technology has radically changed the family organisation and relation in several ways. a. Firstly, small equalitarian nuclear family system based on love, equality, liberty and freedom is replacing the old, authoritarian joint family system. Due to invention of birth, control method, the size of family reduced. b. Secondly, Industrialisation destroying the domestic system of production has brought women from home to the factories and office. The employment of women meant their independence from the bondage of man. If brought a change in their attitudes and ideas. It meant a new social life for women. It consequently affected every part of the family life. c. Thirdly due to technology, marriage has lost its sanctity. It is now regarded as civil contract rather than a religious sacrament. Romantic marriage, inter-caste marriage and late marriages are the effects of technology. Instances of divorce, desertion, separation and broken families are increasing. d. Lastly, though technology has elevated the status of women, it has also contributed to the stresses and strains in the relations between men and women at home. It has lessened the importance of family in the process of socialisation of its members. 2. Religion: Technology has effected wide range of changes in our religious life. Many religious practices and ceremonies which once marked the individual and social life, have now been abandoned by them. With the growth of scientific knowledge and modern education, the faith of the people in several old religious beliefs and activities have shaken. 3. Economic life: The most striking change due to technological advance, is the change in economic organisation. Industry has been taken away from the household and new types of economic organisation like factories, stores, banks, joint stock companies, stock-exchanges, and corporation have been setup. It has given birth to capitalism with all its attendant evils. Division of labour, specialization of function, differentiation and integration all the products of technology. Though it has brought in higher standard of living, still then by creating much more middle classes, it has caused economic depression, unemployment, poverty, industrial disputes and infectious diseases. 4. Political: social change has affected the State in several ways. The functions of the State has been widened. A large number of functions of family, such as educative, recreation, health functions have been transferred to the State. The idea of social welfare State is an offshoot of technology. Transportation and communication are leading to a shift of functions from local Government to the Central Government. The modern Government which rule through the bureaucracy have further impersonalised the human relations. 5. Social life: social change has affected the whole gamut of social and cultural life. The technological conditions of the modern factory system tend to weaken the rigidity of the caste system and strengthen industrializations. It has changed the basis of social stratification from birth to wealth. Urbanization, a consequence of technological advance, produces greater emotional tension and mental strain, instability and economic insecurity. Technology has grown the sense of individualism.

Module 1: Concept of People and Culture PDF

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