History 121 Final Review PDF

1. What was the first permanent English colony in the Americas? Jamestown Virginia - May 13 - 104 English men and boys arrived in North America to start a settlement - Only men arrived (did not intended to settle their) - England its first foothold in the European competition for the New World - Organized by the Virginia Company of London - To build a secure settlement, find gold, and seek a water route to the Pacific. 2. What was “Starving Time”? - “The starving time” was the winter of 1609-1610 - food shortages, fractured leadership, and a siege by Powhatan Indian warriors killed two of every three colonists at James Fort - two-thirds of the colonists died from starvation, disease, and attacks by Powhatan warriors. Survivors resorted to eating horses, pets, and even human remains to survive. - Jamestown colony 3. Who is considered the person that saved the Jamestown colony from collapse? Captain John Smith - interactions with Native American tribes, particularly the Powhatan Confederacy - helped the struggling settlement survive its early hardships - His association with Pocahontas, a Powhatan chief's daughter - injured in a gunpowder explosion in 1609 and returned to England, never to return to Virginia 4. What was the significance of the Mayflower Compact? - brought the English concepts of Law and Liberty to the New World - common bond among the 102 pilgrims at Plymouth - established a self-governing colony based on majority rule, with the signers agreeing to work together for the common good and to make laws for the welfare of the colon - one of the most first written frameworks for self governing - pilgrims sought to create a society where they could practice their religious beliefs freely, as they had faced persecution in England. - expressed their loyalty to King James I of England, acknowledging their intent to settle in the "northern parts of Virginia." - 5. What were the main social and economic differences between the Jamestown and Massachusetts Bay colonies? Jamestown: - economy of Jamestown was initially unstable - established by the Virginia Company, was primarily an economic venture - The primary goal was wealth generation. - colony struggled with disease, starvation, and poor leadership - tobacco became the primary cash crop - The plantation economy created a hierarchy of wealthy landowners at the top and a large labor force of indentured servants and enslaved Africans at the bottom. - indentured servitude to African slavery - relations with Native Americans were initially tense and often hostile - Conflicts with Powhatan confederacy - Tobacco farming - High mortality rates initially - Mostly male, adventurers Massachusetts Bay colonies: - versified economy that included farming, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade. - Fertile land - founded by Puritans seeking religious freedom - Highly linked to puritan beliefs - Church influenced government - Puritans wanted to initially convert Native Americans to Christianity - Families, middle-class Puritans - Puritan theocracy, religious motivation 6. In what way was Massachusetts “a city on a hill”? - Developed by John Winthrop ( the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony) - Expectation of Massachusetts colonies - The Puritans saw themselves as a chosen people who had been called by God to create a model Christian community in the New World. - massachusetts Bay Colony would stand as a shining example of Christian virtue and social harmony for the rest of the world to observe - Reinforced sense of Puritan responsibilities 7. Who were the two important religious dissenters in Massachusetts? Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams Anne Hutchinson: - Heresy related to salvation, women's religious authority - Criticized clergy and the covenant of works - Banished to Rhode Island in 1638 - Advocate for women in religious life, Rhode Island's foundation Roger Williams: - Separation of church and state, religious tolerance - Opposed government enforcement of religion and Native American mistreatment - Banished to Rhode Island in 1636 - Founder of Rhode Island, champion of religious freedom 8. How did the economies of the New England, Middle, and Southern states differ? New England Colonies (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire): - primarily based on commerce, trade, and small-scale farming. - Harsh climate/rocky soil - shipbuilding, fishing (cod, whale oil), fur trading, and later, manufacturing. New England's ports, particularly Boston, were busy centers for trade. - The labor force was made up largely of family farms, with some hired laborers, but there was less reliance on enslaved labor compared to the Southern colonies. - diverse economy, with an emphasis on industry and commerce - Merchant class - Wealthy because of trading Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware) - Mixed economy (like New England but also like southern colonies) - fertile soil allowed for the production of crops like wheat, corn, oats, and rye, - shipbuilding / agricultural industries - relied more on indentured servants and free labor than on enslaved labor - diverse and prosperous economy, with a mix of agriculture, industry, and trade - religious diversity, with Dutch, English, German, and Quaker communities playing important role Southern Colonies (Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia) - developed an economy heavily reliant on agriculture due to the region’s warm climate and fertile soil - cash crops like tobacco, rice, indigo, and later cotton - Agricultural economy/export oriented - reliant on enslaved labor - reliance on indentured servants or free labor - agrarian and based on the plantation system → landowners became very wealthy - Hierarchical social system 9. Which region became most associated with education? The New England colonies - Puritan values (high value for literature for religious reasons(individuals had to read the bible)) - Establishment of small schools - Education = communal responsibility - Local government + church promoting education/ literacy rates - Old Deluder Satan Act(essentially required education on children in towns of a population of 50+) - Harvard + Yale - Highest literacy rates 10. What was the first legislative body in the British colonies, and when was it founded? The Virginia House of Burgesses was the first legislative body in the British American colonies. It was established in 1619 in the colony of Virginia. - authorized the establishment of an assembly of elected representatives. - Burgesses(members of the house), were elected by free male landowners in the colony - bicameral legislature - Beginning of representational government in the British colonies - allowed the colonists to have a say in local governance and laws - Became model for Americas self governance 11. When and where was slavery first introduced to the British colonies? In 1619 in the Virginia Colony - Arrived on Dutch ship called white lion - Slaves were traded - Status became needed/necessary in the southern colonies - Unlike indentured servitude, slavery was a lifetime condition, and the children of enslaved people were also born into slavery, creating a permanent, hereditary labor force - The economy in Virginia, which was heavily reliant on labor-intensive tobacco cultivation, created a demand for workers 12. How did the British settlement impact upon the Native Americans? - Native americans lost land - Initially, settlers often relied on trade and established relationships with Native groups, but as the colonies expanded, settlers pushed further inland, encroaching on Native territories. - led to the forced relocation of Native American tribes. - Native Americans were forced to sign treaties that removed them from their land - introduction of diseases to which Native Americans had no immunity. - Smallpox, measles, influenza, and other European diseases spread rapidly through Native populations, often wiping out entire communities. - Led to mass deaths of Native Americans - Early interactions between Native Americans and European settlers were often centered on trade, especially in furs and other natural resources. - British’s new goods altered the trade network - Native Americans became dependent on Europeans for some goods - erosion of Native American cultures, languages, and ways of life. - Christian missionaries, often supported by colonial governments, sought to convert Native Americans to Christianity - Pequot War (1636–1638) and King Philip’s War (1675–1678 - native Americans were also enslaved or coerced into servitude, particularly in the early years of colonization Pequot War: - conflict between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of English colonists - b/c the pilgrims had a positive relationship with Wanapanog tribe - Allied with the wampanoag against Pequot King Philip's War: - Pressured Wampanoag leader to sell their land - One of the bloodiest conflicts - His head was displayed in Plymouth 13. What was the triangular trade? connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries, facilitating the exchange of goods and enslaved people. Europe to Africa: - manufactured goods such as textiles, guns, alcohol, and ironware to West Africa - exchanged for enslaved Africans Africa to the Americas (Middle Passage): - involved the brutal transport of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas - Enslaved were sold to work on plantations and in mines, particularly in the Caribbean, South America, and the Southern British colonies Americas to Europe: - carried raw materials such as sugar, tobacco, cotton, molasses, rum, and raw materials - Materials processed into manufactured goods or consumed by European markets 14. What is mercantilism? - economic theory that says a country's power depends on how much wealth it has, especially in the form of gold and silver - export more than you import(the whole part of the theory) - colonies to provide raw materials to the mother country, which would then turn those into finished goods to sell. - Government played a big role by controlling trade and supporting businesses to help the country grow rich and powerful. 15. Describe the Middle Passage. - enslaved Africans were forced to take from Africa to the Americas - packed tightly onto ships, treated brutally, and many died from disease, abuse, or poor conditions - Apart of the triangular trade - Many enslaved died due to the harsh conditions - Overcrowded - Could last up to 2 months - Enslaved people were used to work on sugar, tobacco, and cotton plantations. 16. How did slavery differ from indentured servitude? Slaves were permanently enslaved, while indentured servants eventually gained their freedom upon completing their contract 17. What was the most important crop in the southern colonies? Tobacco: - especially in Virginia and Maryland - use of enslaved labor made tobacco production central to the Southern economy - Tobacco farming contributed to the rise of the plantation system - success of tobacco also drove further expansion of land, especially in the fertile river valleys of the South 18. What industry became important in New England? Shipbuilding: - fishing industry - enabled New England to become an important part of - New England's long coastline, natural harbors, and abundant forests made it an ideal location for shipbuilding. 19. Which area was most religiously influenced? The New England colonies were the most religiously influenced of the British colonies in America - primarily settled by Puritans seeking religious freedom. - Puritans believed in the strict adherence to their interpretation of Christianity, and their religious beliefs were deeply intertwined with daily life, governance, and laws. - the church played a central role in community life - Puritans and other settlers, like the Pilgrims in Plymouth, prioritized religious practice and church attendance. - The Great Awakening(emphasized personal faith and emotional religious experiences) 20. What colony was founded as a haven for Catholics? Maryland - Maryland was intended to provide a safe refuge for English Catholics who were facing persecution in Protestant England. - Maryland’s founding charter allowed for religious freedom, and it became a place where Catholics could practice their faith without fear of discrimination. - Tension between Protestants and Catholics - Hierarchical colony Conflict with natives for farming land 21. What were the key purposes of the Pennsylvania colony? - Founded by William Penn - Penn, a Quaker, wanted to create a colony where people of all religious backgrounds could worship freely without persecution. - Founded for religious freedom purposes - attracting not only Quakers but also other religious groups, such as Lutherans, Dutch Reformed, Catholics, and Jews, who sought freedom to practice their faith. - religious tolerance, equality, and self-government - The colony’s fertile land, especially along the Delaware River, was ideal for farming, and it produced crops like wheat, corn, and tobacco. - Penn believed in treating Native Americans fairly and negotiated with them to acquire land through fair agreements rather than by force 22. What state passed an Act of Religious Toleration 1649? Maryland: - Act of Toleration (1649) - Ensure peace between Catholics and Protestants - Granted religious tolerance to all Christians, allowing both Catholics and Protestants to practice their faiths freely - Repealed later but one of the first laws that promoted religious tolerance 23. What portion of southerners owned more than 5 slaves? only a small percentage of Southern families—usually the wealthiest landowners—owned more than five slaves. 24. What part of North America did each European power control? Spain: - Southwest and Florida - Spain established a series of missions, presidios (forts), and pueblos (towns) to colonize these areas, focusing on converting Native Americans to Christianity and extracting resources like gold and silver. France: - Canada and the Mississippi Valley - The French were primarily interested in the fur trade and established close relations with Native American tribes for trapping and trading - Fewer settlements + exploration and trade England: - Eastern Seaboard and the Thirteen Colonies(most extensive colonial presence - After the Treaty of Paris (1763), which ended the French and Indian War, Britain gained control of Canada and the land east of the Mississippi River, further consolidating its position in North America. The Netherlands: New Netherland (parts of modern-day New York, New Jersey, Delaware). Russia: Alaska and parts of the Pacific Northwest. Sweden: New Sweden (parts of Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania). 25. What was the first effort of the colonies to work as a unified group, and who spearheaded that effort? Albany Congress of 1754: Benjamin Franklin - address growing concerns over defense and territorial disputes with Native Americans and the French during the early stages of the French and Indian War - proposed the idea of a unified colonial government - calling for a centralized government to oversee defense, trade, and Indian relations - rejected by the colonial assemblies and the British government, it was a significant early attempt at unity - foreshadowed later efforts at unification, including the First Continental Congress 26. What were the results of the French and Indian War? French and Indian War: - conflict fought between Great Britain and France - The war was primarily fought over control of territory in North America, especially the Ohio River Valley and the Great Lakes region, areas rich in resources and strategic value - Both Britain and France sought to expand their territories in North America - Britain and France had been rivals for centuries in Europe - The Iroquois Confederacy generally supported the British, while many other tribes, such as the Algonquin and the Huron, allied with the French, who had a history of more cooperative relationships with Native peoples. Results: - The Treaty of Paris (1763): The war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The treaty had significant consequences for North America: - Britain gained control of Canada, Florida (from Spain), and all French territory east of the Mississippi River. - France ceded Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s loss of Florida, but France retained control of some Caribbean territories. - Native American lands: The treaty ignored the interests of Native American tribes, and many were displaced as a result of British expansion. - The war was costly for Britain( Allowed for the American Revolution ) - Colonies fought together with the British - End of France’s colonial empire in North America - British one 27. What was the purpose of the Proclamation of 1763? - issued by King George III - avoid conflicts between settlers and Native American tribes in the newly acquired territories after the war. - Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763), a Native American uprising against British expansion in the Great Lakes region, highlighted the potential for violent conflict. ---> so the proclamation was to stabilize the relationship - forbade colonial settlers from moving west of the Appalachian Mountains - helped to organize newly acquired lands. - way for Britain to assert more control over colonial activities - sought to regulate interactions between settlers and Native American tribes to avoid conflicts and ensure fair trade. - proclamation was highly unpopular among many American colonists - restriction on their freedom and an economic hindrance. - contribute to growing tensions between the colonies and the British government in the years leading up to the American Revolution. 28. What was the key issue that caused tension between Britain and the colonists? - Practice of Taxation without Representation - posed taxes on the colonies without giving them any say in the matter - After period of salutary neglect they still wanted to have/maintain control (during the fighting) - Sugar act - Stamp act(sons of liberty tried to oppose) - Declaratory act Reasons of why they posed taxes: - Britain was heavily indebted and sought to raise revenue by taxing the colonies through acts like the Stamp Act and the Tea Act - colonists were angered because they had no elected representatives in the British Parliament to voice their concerns regarding these new taxes 29. What was the Boston Massacre? - seven British soldiers fired into a crowd of volatile Bostonians, killing five, wounding another six, and angering an entire colony - Samuel Adams, and others argued that Parliament imposed taxes infringed upon their natural rights as Englishmen - The fight over taxes and representation led to violent outbreaks in the streets between Bostonians and royal customs official - British soldiers occupied Boston - The first shot in the Boston Massacre was fired by a British soldier named Hugh Montgomery - People agree that the soldiers were provoked by a group of rowdy colonists and that someone yelled “fire” – though no one knows who. Before that night, tensions had been rising in Boston for some time. 30. What was the significance of the Boston Tea Party? - On the night of December 16, 1773, dozens of disguised men, some as Indigenous Americans, boarded the three East India Company ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor. - gave the colonists the motivation to stand up for their rights and to ultimately risk their lives by going to war for their independence - The Sons of Liberty strongly opposed the taxes in the Townshend Act as a violation of their rights - The Sons of Liberty, some disguised as Native Americans, destroyed an entire shipment of tea sent by the East India Company After: - Parliament passed several acts to punish Massachusetts. The Boston Port Bill banned the loading or unloading of any ships in Boston harbor. 31. Who was Patrick Henry? - Advocate for Independence: He was a leading proponent of American independence and resistance British oppression - Bill of Rights: He pushed for adding a Bill of Rights of the U.s Constitution to protect individual freedoms like free speech and right to a fair trial - Anti- Federalist: He is worried a strong central government might take away the rights for everyday people - He served as the first Governor of Virginia after it became an independent state - “Give me liberty, or give me death”- He said this during a speech to convince leaders in Virginia to prepare for the war against Britain 32. What were the Intolerable Acts? - Were a series of laws passed by the British to punish American colonist, especially those in Massachusetts, for the Boston Tea Party and other acts of protest - Boston Port Act: Closed the Port of Boston until colonists paid for the destroyed tea from the Boston tea party - Massachusetts Government Act: Limited self government by giving more power to the British- appointed governor and restricting town meetings - Administration of Justice Act: Allow British officials accused of crimes in the colonies to be tried in Britain or other colonies rather than local courts - Quartering Act: Forced colonists to house and provide for British soldiers in their home 33. Who wrote Common Sense, and what was it about? Thomas Paine - advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies What it is about - Independence from England - The creation of a democratic republic - pivotal role in advocating for American independence from British rule - arguments are grounded in the principles of natural rights, the flaws of monarchical and hereditary succession, and the practical and moral imperatives for self-governance. 34. Why was George Washington an effective commander of the Continental Army? - Strong Leadership and Presence: Washington inspired loyalty and respect among his troops - Military Experience : He understood the importance of fighting a war of attrition rather than trying to win through quickly. Washington often used tactics like hit and rude attacks, retreats, and guerrilla warfare to wear down the British forces - John Adams of Massachusetts formally nominated George Washignton (he didn't even want to do it) 35. What provided much of the inspiration for the Declaration of Independence? The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776): - Written by George Mason - Outlined inherent rights of people - emphasized the right to life, liberty, and property, as well as the idea that government is based on the consent of the governed John Locke’s Philosophy: - His ideas about natural rights, government by consent, and the right of people to revolt against tyrannical rulers were central to the Declaration. - notably life, liberty, and property, which were later echoed in the Declaration as "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. - Social contract concept The common sense pamphlet: - Paine argued for a break from Britain in clear, accessible language, and his critique of monarchy and hereditary rule was widely read and debated across the colonies Enlightenment thinkers: - such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (who wrote about the general will and popular sovereignty) and Baron de Montesquieu (whose ideas on the separation of powers influenced the structure of the American government) Colonial Grievances: - including taxation without representation, restrictions on trade, the dissolution of colonial assemblies, and the maintenance of a standing army in the colonies without consent. The Magna Carta (1215) - It inspired the colonists’ desire for protections against arbitrary government. 36. Who was the author of the Declaration of Independence? Thomas Jefferson: - delegate from Virginia to the Continental Congress 37. What beliefs were shared between Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence? The Rejection of Monarchy and Hereditary Rule - Common Sense: enounced monarchy as an illegitimate and oppressive form of government. - Declaration of Independence: The Declaration specifically criticized King George III, calling him a "tyrant" who had abused his power. The Right to Revolution - Common Sense: Paine argued that when a government becomes abusive or tyrannical, the people have not only the right but the duty to overthrow it - Declaration of Independence: The Declaration articulates a similar right to revolution, stating that when a government fails to protect the people’s rights and instead acts in a tyrannical manner, the people have the right to "alter or abolish" it and establish a new government. Government Should Be Based on the Consent of the Governed - Common Sense: Paine emphasized that legitimate government comes from the consent of the governed, not from inherited power or foreign domination. - Declaration of Independence: The Declaration echoes this idea in its famous lines: "Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed." The Injustice of British Rule and the Need for Independence - Common Sense: He argued that the colonies could thrive better as an independent nation, free from British control. - Declaration of Independence: The Declaration lists specific grievances against King George III, including taxation without representation, the suspension of colonial laws, the maintenance of a standing army without consent, and other forms of oppression. The Colonies Are Capable of Self-Government - Common Sense: Paine argued that the colonies, despite their relative youth and inexperience, were capable of establishing a successful, self-sustaining government. - Declaration of Independence: While not as explicitly focused on the idea of self-government, the Declaration implied this belief by asserting the colonies' independence and their intention to form a new government. 38. What battle was the turning point in the American Revolution? - Battle of Saratoga: Boosted Americans because they won against the British Force. - It also secured French support because Americans convinced France to formally enter the war as an ally to the colonies. France provided critical military support that helped significantly. - George Washington finally was able to win 39. What battle marked the end of the Revolutionary War? The Battle of Yorktown - a successful siege, General George Washington and French forces trapped British General Cornwallis and his 8,000 troops at Yorktown, Virginia - Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending the conflict. - Victory led to peace negotiations, and the war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized American independence. 40. What role did the French play in the American Revolution? - providing military, financial, and diplomatic support that helped the American colonies win their independence from Britain Treaty of Alliance (1778): - France formally entered the war on the side of the colonies - After the americans win in the Battle of Saratoga - pledged to support the American cause with military and financial aid. - Military assistance - The French navy, in particular, played a decisive role in the eventual American victory. - The French navy, under Admiral de Grasse, blocked British reinforcements from reaching the British forces led by General Cornwallis. (Battle of Yorktown) - France provided essential financial support to the American cause - France also provided supplies, arms, and ammunition that were critical to sustaining the Continental Army. - Baron von Steuben, a Prussian officer who was hired by the French and came to America with their support, was instrumental in training and organizing the Continental Army during the harsh winter at Valley Forge in 1777–1778. - The French military presence enhanced the Americans' capacity to confront British forces more effectively. 41. What, if any, advantages did the American have over the British in the Revolutionary War? Home-Field Advantage - The American colonies were spread across a vast territory, which gave the Continental Army a major strategic advantage over the British, who had to conduct the war from thousands of miles away. - The Americans knew the landscape, weather, and local conditions, which allowed them to use guerrilla tactics, hide in forests, and wage an unpredictable war. Commitment to Independence: - The Americans were fighting for their homes, their families, and the ideal of self-government. - This sense of purpose gave them a stronger motivation to persevere and fight for their independence. - The American cause had widespread support, especially in the early years of the war. - Continental Army to rely on the local population for supplies, information, and soldiers. Exceptional leadership, particularly by George Washington, and effective military leadership. The vital support of foreign allies like France, Spain, and the Netherlands. The weaknesses of British strategy, including overextension, public dissent, and logistical challenges. Effective use of guerrilla tactics and asymmetric warfare. The British struggle to fight an unconventional war on unfamiliar ground. 42. What document provided the basis for American government immediately after the Revolutionary War? Articles of Confederation - Adopted by the Continental Congress in November 1777 and ratified by all 13 states by March 1781 - established a confederation of sovereign states, with a very weak central government. - The national government consisted of a single-chamber Congress, in which each state had one vote, and there was no executive branch or judiciary at the national level. - gave the national government the power to conduct foreign affairs, declare war, make treaties, and manage relations with Native American tribes. - Central government had limited powers—most notably, it could not tax the states or raise an army without state consent. 43. What were the major weaknesses of the Articles? Lack of Central Authority - The Articles created a government that lacked a strong central authority to enforce laws or regulate commerce, leading to problems with economic stability and interstate disputes. No Power to Tax - The inability of the central government to levy taxes meant that it had to rely on voluntary state contributions, which were often insufficient. No Executive or Judiciary - Without an executive branch to enforce laws or a judiciary to resolve disputes, the national government was weak and ineffective. 44. What is the significance of Virginia’s Declaration of Rights and Religious Freedoms? VA declaration of rights - George Mason - adopted by the Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, shortly before the Declaration of Independence was approved - earliest formal statements advocating for human rights and individual liberty in America. - Model for the Bill of Rights: including the protections of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and the right to a fair trial. - Natural Rights: It emphasized the idea of natural rights, influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke. - Limitations of Government: It asserted that government’s power was derived from the consent of the governed and that governments were instituted to protect people's natural rights. If a government violated these rights, the people had the right to alter or abolish it. Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786) - Thomas Jefferson - landmark piece of legislation that ensured religious liberty and separated church and state in Virginia. - passed by the Virginia General Assembly on January 16, 1786 - Freedom of Religion: The statute guaranteed that individuals could practice any religion without government interference or preference. - Separation of Church and State: Jefferson’s clear vision was that the government should not endorse, fund, or interfere with religious practices. - Influence on the U.S. Constitution: The principles of religious freedom and the separation of church and state in this statute were highly influential in shaping the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1791), which protects both freedom of religion and the establishment of religion clauses (prohibiting the government from establishing a national religion). 45. What event led people to conclude that a new, stronger government needed to be formed? Shays' Rebellion - armed uprising in Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays, a former Revolutionary War soldier, and other struggling farmers - protested economic hardships, including high taxes and debt, which threatened them with the loss of their farms. - The Massachusetts state government, under Governor James Bowdoin, responded with military force, eventually defeating the rebels. - Articles of Confederation, as the central government lacked the power to intervene or maintain order. - highlighted the need for a stronger national government 46. What were some of the key provisions of the US Constitution? Elastic Clause: - Allows Congress to create any laws needed to do its job, even if those laws are not specifically mentioned in the Constitution. - It gives the government the flexibility to adapt to new situations and issues that weren't foreseen when the Constitution was written. Supremacy Clause: - If there’s a disagreement between state laws and federal laws, federal laws win. State laws cannot override or go against the Constitution or federal laws. Full Faith and Credit Clause: - This clause ensures that legal decisions or documents made in one state (like marriage licenses, court rulings, or contracts) are recognized and respected in all other states. 47. When was the Constitution passed? - September 17, 1787 at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia - replaced the Articles of Confederation on March 4, 1789 48. What was the primary author of the Constitution? James Madison - central role in drafting and promoting the document - played a key role in the debates at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where the Constitution was created. 49. What was the Great Compromise? - also known as the Connecticut Compromise - resolved a major dispute between large and small states over how they should be represented in the new U.S. Congress. - The Senate: Each state would have two senators, regardless of its size or population. This satisfied the smaller states by giving them equal representation in one part of Congress. - The House of Representatives: Representation would be based on a state's population, so larger states would have more representatives. This reflected the wishes of the larger states for proportional representation. - established the U.S. Congress as a bicameral legislature, with the Senate (equal representation for each state) and the House of Representatives (proportional representation based on population). - proposed by Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth 50. What was the 3/5 Compromise? - The 3/5 Compromise was an agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 between Northern and Southern states regarding how to count enslaved people for purposes of representation and taxation - For every five enslaved people, only three would be counted in the population totals. - This compromise allowed Southern states to gain more representatives in Congress, but it also limited the political power they gained by not counting enslaved people as a whole person. - gave Southern states a greater number of seats in the House of Representatives 51. What were the Federalist Papers? - The main purpose of the Federalist Papers was to persuade the people of New York (and by extension, other states) to support and ratify the new U.S. Constitution - The Federalist Papers were a series of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay Federalist 10: - argues that a large republic is the best way to control the negative effects of factions (groups with shared interests) by preventing any single faction from gaining too much power, thereby protecting individual rights and the common good Federalist 50: - The system of checks and balances in the U.S. government, including the power of impeachment, is essential for preventing the abuse of power, while also requiring vigilance from the people and their representatives to maintain its integrity. Federalist 78: - Judges should serve for life to stay independent and make fair decisions, without being influenced by politics, so they can protect the Constitution and prevent the other branches of government from becoming too powerful. 52. What was the purpose of the Bill of Rights? - was created to protect individual freedoms and limit federal government power, ensuring basic rights like freedom of speech and protection from unfair treatment, and addressing concerns that the original Constitution didn’t safeguard personal liberties. 53. What rights are included in the Bill of Rights? First Amendment: - Freedom of Speech, Press, Religion, Assembly, and Petition: Protects the right to express opinions, practice any religion, assemble peacefully, and petition the government for change. Second Amendment: - Right to Bear Arms: Protects the right to keep and bear arms. Third Amendment: - Protection from Quartering Troops: Prevents the government from forcing citizens to house soldiers in their homes without consent. Fourth Amendment: - Protection from Unreasonable Searches and Seizures: Requires a warrant and probable cause for searches and seizures by the government. Fifth Amendment: - Rights in Criminal Cases: Guarantees protection from self-incrimination, double jeopardy, and ensures due process of law and compensation for the taking of private property (eminent domain). Sixth Amendment: - Right to a Fair Trial: Guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to legal counsel in criminal cases. Seventh Amendment: - Right to a Jury Trial in Civil Cases: Ensures the right to a trial by jury in civil cases involving significant amounts of money. Eighth Amendment: - Protection from Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment. Ninth Amendment: - Protection of Rights Not Specifically Mentioned in the Constitution: Asserts that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not mean that others do not exist. Tenth Amendment: - Powers Reserved to the States or the People: Any powers not specifically granted to the federal government are reserved for the states or the people. 54. What was the Whiskey Rebellion, and why was it important? - The Whiskey Rebellion was a violent protest that occurred between 1791 and 1794 in the western regions of Pennsylvania. - Tax on Whiskey: In 1791, the U.S. government, under President George Washington and Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, imposed a tax on whiskey to generate revenue. - This tax was particularly unpopular among farmers in western Pennsylvania, who often distilled their surplus grain into whiskey for sale and trade. - Protests and Violent Reactions: Many farmers saw the tax as unfair, as it was difficult to pay, and it disproportionately affected them compared to wealthy urban elites. - Protests into acts of violence and intimidation against tax collectors, and in some cases, mobs attacked federal officials. - President Washington responded by sending a military force of about 13,000 troops to suppress the rebellion. - Federal Power vs. States' Rights: The rebellion was significant because it tested the federal government’s authority to enforce its law - The government's response to the Whiskey Rebellion, reinforcing the idea that the government could intervene to ensure national stability. - While the rebellion itself was short-lived, it stirred a debate over the balance of power between the federal government and state governments, as well as the fairness of federal taxes. - The Whiskey Rebellion was an important event in the early years of the United States, as it tested the federal government's ability to enforce its laws and established a strong precedent for federal authority over states and individual 55. What are some important precedents that Washington set in his presidency? - Washington created the Cabinet, a group of advisors to assist him in managing various areas of government, such as foreign affairs, finance, and defense - appointed Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox as Secretary of War. - The establishment of the Cabinet became an essential part of the executive branch, which continues to this day. - Washington voluntarily stepped down after two terms in office, setting a precedent that presidents should serve no more than two terms, a tradition that lasted until it was formalized by the 22nd Amendment in 1951. - Washington established the policy of neutrality in foreign conflicts, particularly with regard to the conflict between France and Great Britain - Washington believed in a strong executive branch and used his presidential powers to establish the role as one of leadership and authority - Exercised his veto power and set the precedent for how presidents should assert executive power while respecting the Constitution. - signed the Judiciary Act of 1789, which created the federal judiciary, including the Supreme Court, lower courts, and the position of the Attorney General - Farewell Address in 1796, Washington advised the country to avoid political parties and entangling alliances with foreign nations - warned against factionalism and the dangers of sectionalism. 56. What was the crux of the conflict between Hamilton and the Federalists and Jefferson and the Republicans? - conflict between Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists on one side, and Thomas Jefferson and the Republicans (later known as the Democratic-Republicans) on the other Hamilton and Federalists: - believed in a strong central government with significant power over the states - thought a powerful federal government was essential to maintaining order, promoting economic growth, and ensuring national unity - developing a strong central bank, a national currency, and fostering commerce and manufacturing - Hamilton's economic plan included creating a national bank and assuming state debts to establish credit. - Advocated for a loose interpretation of the Constitution - The government could exercise powers not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution if they were deemed necessary and proper - Favored closer ties with Great Britain, as they saw Britain as an important trading partner and believed that maintaining good relations with Britain was crucial for economic stability and security. Jefferson and the Republicans: - Advocated for a more limited federal government and greater power for the states. - feared a strong central government would lead to tyranny and infringe on individual liberties. - Emphasized an agrarian economy based on farming and agriculture. - The backbone of the republic should be the independent farmer, and he opposed a national bank, viewing it as unconstitutional and a tool for the rich elite. - Preferred a strict interpretation of the Constitution - believed that if the Constitution did not explicitly grant a power to the federal government, it was reserved for the states or the people - argued that a national bank was unconstitutional because it wasn't explicitly authorized. - Supported an alliance with France and admired the French Revolution. - Believed that the U.S. should align with France against monarchies like Britain 57. What early precedents were set against US involvement in international affairs? In 1793, President George Washington issued the Proclamation of Neutrality - declaring that the United States would remain neutral in the ongoing conflict between France and Great Britain. - In response to France’s request for U.S. support during the French Revolutionary Wars. - Proclamation set a long-standing precedent for non-intervention in European conflicts. - warned the U.S. to avoid forming permanent alliances with foreign nations, which he saw as potentially dangerous for the young republic. Washington’s Farewell Address (1796): - Washington warned the nation against forming entangling alliances with foreign countries, particularly in Europe - Emphasized that the U.S. should focus on maintaining peace and neutrality, avoiding foreign conflicts that could pull the country into wars. - Cemented the idea of isolationism in U.S. foreign policy for many years, urging the nation to steer clear of European politics and avoid becoming involved in their wars. Jefferson’s Embargo Act (1807): - In response to British and French interference with American merchant ships during the Napoleonic Wars - President Thomas Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from trading with foreign nations. - Intended to protect U.S. interests and assert American neutrality - The embargo showed the U.S. commitment to avoiding military conflict and protecting its sovereignty through non-violent means. Monroe Doctrine (1823): - President James Monroe articulated the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European nations against further colonization or interference in the Western Hemisphere. - The U.S. promised to remain neutral in European wars. - emphasized that the Western Hemisphere was the sphere of influence of the United States, not European powers. 58. What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, and why were they significant? Virginia Resolutions: - emphasized that the federal government was a creation of the states and that the states had the right to interpret the Constitution and protest unconstitutional actions by the federal government - federal government exercised powers that were not specifically delegated to it by the Constitution - States could “interpose" or protest such actions. - Important precedent for limiting federal power influenced future debates on states' rights and nullification, shaping the ongoing struggle over the balance of power between the federal government and the states. - The Virginia Resolutions were drafted by James Madison - argued that the Sedition Act was an unconstitutional use of federal power - acts violated the rights guaranteed by the Constitution, particularly the First Amendment. - assert that the federal government had overstepped its bounds and that the states had a role in determining when federal actions violated the Constitution. Kentucky Resolutions: - Written by Thomas Jefferson in 1798 in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts - They argued that states had the right to nullify (invalidate) federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, particularly the Sedition Act. - Introduced the concept of nullification—the idea that states could reject federal laws. - Asserted states' rights and challenged the scope of federal power. - Set a precedent for future debates on the balance of power between federal and state governments, influencing later conflicts like the Nullification Crisis and the Civil War. 59. Why is Jefferson’s election sometimes called the Revolution of 1800? - It marked a peaceful and significant shift in power from the Federalist Party to the Democratic-Republicans. - first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history, demonstrating that democracy could function without violence or unrest. - Victory represented an ideological shift toward limited government, states' rights, and agrarian values, rejecting the more elitist, centrist policies of the Federalists. - led to reforms in the electoral process, highlighting the growing influence of the common people in American politics. 60. What economic differences between north and south developed in the early 1800s? South: - relying heavily on cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and rice - large plantations depended on enslaved labor for cultivation, making slavery a central part of the economy - deeply tied to slavery, with enslaved African Americans working on large farms and plantations. This system provided cheap labor to produce crops like cotton, which fueled the global textile industry, particularly in Britain - fewer railroads and canals compared to the North, making transportation of goods more difficult. Most Southern transportation was focused on river routes for moving agricultural products. - Southern economy was highly dependent on the export of agricultural products, especially cotton, to foreign markets, particularly Great Britain. This reliance on a few crops made the South vulnerable to price fluctuations in international markets - lacked the same level of banking and financial institutions as the North, making it harder to raise capital for industrial development. 61. What was the Louisiana Purchase? - The purchase involved a massive territory in North America that extended from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains - Thomas Jefferson authorized the deal, and the agreement was negotiated by James Monroe and French government - This has doubled the size of the United States - Opened up vast new territories for westward expansion - Secured American control of the strategic port of New Orleans and the Mississippi RIver, crucial for trade and transportation 62. Who explored the Louisiana Territory? - Expired by Meriwether Lewis and William clark during the famous Lewis and Clark Expedition 63. What Native American aided them on their exploration? - Sacagawa played an important role in helping the Lewis and Clark Expedition. What did they help with: - Guide and Translator: Sacagawea's knowledge of the land and ability to communicate with various Native American tribes, especially the Shoshone, were vital to the expedition's success. - Cultural Liaison: Her presence helped signal to Native American tribes that the expedition was peaceful, as war parties typically did not travel with women and children. - Land Navigation: She helped the Corps of Discovery find crucial routes through the Rocky Mountains and identify edible plants along the way. - Shoshone Aid: Sacagawea facilitated negotiations for horses with the Shoshone tribe, which were essential for crossing the Rocky Mountains. 64. What were the major causes of the War of 1812? Impressment of American Sailors: - The British Royal Navy routinely captured American sailors and forced them into service on British warships. This practice, known as impressment, was a major affront to American sovereignty and a key grievance leading to war. British Interference with American Trade: - During the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and France, the British imposed naval blockades to restrict trade with France. These restrictions disrupted American commerce and led to the seizure of American merchant ships, which violated U.S. neutral trading rights. Economic Sanctions and the Embargo Act: - In response to British and French interference, President Thomas Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1807, halting all trade with Europe. This failed policy hurt the U.S. economy and increased frustrations with Britain. British Support for Native American Resistance: - Britain supplied weapons and support to Native American tribes resisting U.S. expansion in the Northwest Territory (modern-day Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan). Conflicts like Tecumseh's War increased suspicions that Britain was actively undermining American expansion. Desire for Territorial Expansion: - Some Americans, particularly the "War Hawks" in Congress (such as Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun), sought to expand U.S. territory by annexing British-held Canada and Spanish-held Florida. They believed that war with Britain would facilitate this expansion. National Honor and Sovereignty: - Many Americans felt that British actions were a direct affront to U.S. sovereignty. There was a growing sentiment that war was necessary to defend the nation’s honor and independence. Declaration of War: - On June 18, 1812, President James Madison signed the declaration of war against Great Britain. The war lasted until 1815 and ended with the Treaty of Ghent, restoring pre-war boundaries but resolving few of the underlying issues. 65. What wat the main result of the War of 1812? Increased National Pride and Identity: - The war fostered a sense of unity and patriotism among Americans. The successful defense against British forces solidified the United States' confidence as an independent nation. - The phrase “Second War of Independence” was often used to describe the conflict. End of Native American Resistance: - The war weakened Native American resistance, particularly in the Northwest Territory, as tribes had allied with the British. - This paved the way for further U.S. westward expansion. Decline of the Federalist Party: - The Federalist Party, which opposed the war, lost political support due to its perceived lack of patriotism, particularly after the Hartford Convention of 1814. Boost to U.S. Manufacturing: - The British blockade forced Americans to become more self-sufficient, which spurred the growth of domestic industries and manufacturing. Increased Respect on the World Stage: - The United States demonstrated it could defend itself against a major world power, earning greater respect internationally. Notable Moments: - The war gave rise to enduring symbols such as the "Star-Spangled Banner", written by Francis Scott Key during the British attack on Fort McHenry. 66. What is the significance of the Battle of New Orleans? Decisive American Victory: - American forces, led by General Andrew Jackson, defeated a much larger and better-equipped British force commanded by General Edward Pakenham. The British suffered heavy casualties (over 2,000), while American losses were minimal (about 70). Boosted National Morale and Pride: - The overwhelming victory gave Americans a renewed sense of confidence and unity, solidifying the perception that the U.S. could defend itself against a major world power. Rise of Andrew Jackson:The battle catapulted Andrew Jackson to national fame, eventually paving the way for his presidency in 1829. He became a symbol of American resilience and determination. Defended Strategic Territory:New Orleans was a critical port city controlling access to the Mississippi River and the interior of the country. Its successful defense protected American trade and territorial integrity. Symbolic End to the War: Although the war was officially over, the Battle of New Orleans was viewed as the final chapter of the conflict. It underscored the effectiveness of American forces and gave the war a victorious conclusion in the minds of many Americans. Impact on National Identity: The victory reinforced the notion of American sovereignty and self-reliance, fostering a stronger sense of national identity and unity. 67. What role did John Marshall play in the development of the US government? Establishing Judicial Review: In the landmark case Marbury v. Madison (1803), Marshall’s court established the principle of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the authority to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. This decision cemented the judiciary as a co-equal branch of government and ensured the Constitution would remain the supreme law of the land. Strengthening Federal Power: Marshall consistently ruled in favor of a strong federal government, reinforcing the power of national authority over state authority. Examples include: - McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Upheld the implied powers of Congress, ruling that the federal government had the authority to establish a national bank and that states could not tax federal institutions. - Gibbons V. Ogden (1824): Affirmed federal control over interstate commerce, limiting states ability to interfere with trade between states Marshall established the Constitution as the ultimate authority in legal disputes, ensuring it was the foundation for interpreting laws and government actions. 68. What was the result of Marbury v. Madison? - The result of Marbury v. Madison (1803) was the establishment of the principle of judicial review in the United States. This landmark Supreme Court case, decided by Chief Justice John Marshall, set a precedent that significantly shaped the role and authority of the judiciary. 69. What was the result of McCullough v. Maryland? - The result of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) was a landmark Supreme Court decision that reinforced the authority of the federal government and clarified the relationship between federal and state powers. Chief Justice John Marshall delivered the opinion of the Court, which had profound implications for American constitutional law. - Limits on State Power: It limited the ability of states to interfere with federal operations, ensuring a balance where the federal government remains dominant within its sphere. 70. What was the Monroe Doctrine? - Policy issued by the President James Monroe - the Western Hemisphere was no longer open to new colonization by European powers. Existing colonies were acknowledged, but any attempt to establish new colonies would be viewed as a hostile act. - Foundation of U.S. Foreign Policy: The Monroe Doctrine became a cornerstone of American foreign policy, asserting U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere. 71. Why was the invention of the cotton gin important? - created by Eli Whitney in 1793 - revolutionized cotton production and had far-reaching economic, social, and political consequences. - much faster and easier to separate cotton fibers from cotton seeds - increase in productivity helped meet the growing demand for cotton, especially in the textile mills of the North and in Britain. - made cotton more profitable - boom in cotton farming, particularly in the Deep South, where vast plantations were established - unintentionally entrenched the institution of slavery in the South - helped shape the economic development of the United States in the 19th century - This created a strong economic link between the agricultural South and the industrial North, which would later be a point of tension in the lead-up to the Civil War. - South's dependence on cotton and slavery became a point of contention that eventually led to the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 72. What was the “American System”? - The American System, proposed by Henry Clay in the early 19th century, was an economic plan aimed at strengthening the U.S. after the War of 1812 through three key policies: - Protective Tariffs: Taxes on imported goods to protect American industries and promote domestic manufacturing, particularly in the North. - Internal Improvements: Federal investment in infrastructure like roads, canals, and later railroads, to improve transportation and link regions of the country. - National Bank: A strong central bank to stabilize the economy, regulate credit, and provide a uniform currency. Goals: - Promote economic independence and national unity. - Encourage industrial growth, especially in the North. - Reduce dependence on foreign goods. Opposition: - South: Opposed tariffs and the national bank, which they believed hurt their agrarian economy. - West: Concerned about the national bank and its impact on farmers. 73. Who were the “Great Triumvirate” of the Senate in the first half on the 19th century, and what area did each represent? - refers to three influential U.S. Senators in the early 19th century who were known for their powerful roles in shaping American politics and policy. - debates surrounding national issues like tariffs, slavery, and the future direction of the nation - Henry Clay (West): Advocated for internal improvements and economic nationalism, American System, Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850,. - John C. Calhoun (South): Defended states' rights and slavery, championing nullification, Nullification Crisis of the 1830s. - Daniel Webster (North): Supported federal power and the preservation of the Union, Webster-Hayne Debate over states' rights and was a key figure in the Compromise of 1850. 74. Who was known as the Great Compromiser? Henry Clay - Missouri Compromise (1820 - Clay helped end the Nullification Crisis - sparked the South Carolina nullification movement.(Compromise of 1833) - It included provisions like admitting California as a free state, enacting a stricter Fugitive Slave Law (Compromise of 1850) - allowing popular sovereignty to decide slavery in some western territories. 75. What was the Compromise of 1820? - The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a key agreement aimed at balancing free and slave states as the U.S. expanded westward. It had three main components: - Missouri was admitted as a slave state. - Maine was admitted as a free state. - A boundary was established at the 36°30' parallel, where slavery was allowed south of this line and prohibited north of it, except in Missouri. - The compromise temporarily eased sectional tensions between the North and South, but it only delayed the larger conflict over slavery, which would resurface with events like the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott decision, leading to the Civil War. 76. What was the Missouri Compromise? - Same thing as compromise of 1820 77. What was the “Corrupt bargain”? - The "Corrupt Bargain" refers to the controversial outcome of the 1824 presidential election. - Andrew Jackson won the most votes but didn't have a majority, so the decision went to the House of Representatives. - John Quincy Adams won the presidency after receiving the support of Henry Clay, who was eliminated from the race. - In return, Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State. - Jackson’s supporters believed this was a secret deal, accusing Adams and Clay of stealing the election. - The "Corrupt Bargain" fueled Jackson’s resentment and helped him win the presidency in 1828. 78. What was noteworthy about the election of Andrew Jackson? - Rise of the Common Man: Jackson's victory represented the triumph of ordinary Americans over the political elite, marking the beginning of the modern Democratic Party. - Expanded Suffrage: Many states dropped property requirements, allowing more white men to vote, broadening Jackson's support base. - Populist Campaign: Jackson ran a populist campaign, portraying himself as a man of the people against a corrupt elite. - "Corrupt Bargain" Backlash: Jackson’s victory was partly seen as a response to his loss in 1824, which he framed as a stolen election. - Negative Campaigning: The election featured intense personal attacks, with both sides attacking each other's character. - Stronger Presidency: Jackson’s presidency marked the growth of executive power, including aggressive use of the veto. 79. What is meant by “Jacksonian Democracy”? - Expansion of Suffrage: Eliminating property requirements, allowing more white men to vote. - Populism: Promoting greater participation of common people in government and opposing elite influence. - Strong Presidency: Jackson expanded presidential power, using the veto and the spoils system. - Westward Expansion: Supporting Manifest Destiny and the idea of U.S. territorial growth. - Economic Populism: Opposing the Bank of the United States and favoring agrarian interests. - Indian Removal: Jackson's policy led to the forced relocation of Native Americans, notably the Trail of Tears. 80. Describe the Nullification Crisis. - confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government over high tariffs that South Carolina found unfair - Led by John C. Calhoun, South Carolina claimed it could nullify federal laws it deemed unconstitutional and threatened to secede if forced to follow the tariffs. - President Andrew Jackson strongly opposed nullification and prepared to use force to enforce federal laws. - resolved with a Compromise Tariff (1833) that gradually lowered tariffs, and South Carolina repealed its nullification ordinance. - highlighted tensions over states' rights and foreshadowed future conflicts leading to the Civil War. 81. What was the Indian Removal Act? - The Indian Removal Act of 1830, signed by President Andrew Jackson, authorized the forced - relocation of Native American tribes from the southeastern U.S. to lands west of the Mississippi River. - The goal was to open up land for white settlers. - Forced Relocation: Native tribes, especially the Cherokee, were moved to Oklahoma under harsh conditions, leading to the Trail of Tears, where thousands died. - Opposition: The Act was opposed by some, including the Cherokee and the Supreme Court, which ruled in their favor, but Jackson ignored the decision. - The Indian Removal Act resulted in the loss of Native American lands and lives, marking a dark chapter in U.S. history. 82. What was the Trail of Tears? - The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern U.S. to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) in the 1830s. - Driven by the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which aimed to open land for white settlers, thousands of Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, Chickasaw, and Seminole people were forced to march westward. - The most infamous part of this journey was the Cherokee removal in 1838-1839. - Despite a Supreme Court ruling in their favor, President Andrew Jackson ignored it, and about 16,000 Cherokee were forcibly relocated. - Over 4,000 died from disease, exposure, and starvation during the harsh 1,000-mile march. - The Trail of Tears symbolizes the suffering, displacement, and death faced by Native Americans due to U.S. expansion, and remains a dark chapter in American history. 83. How did westward expansion impact the Native Americans? - Westward expansion had a devastating impact on Native Americans. - As settlers moved west, Native tribes were forcibly removed from their lands through policies like the Indian Removal Act, leading to events like the Trail of Tears - Native peoples lost their land, resources (such as the buffalo), and way of life. - Violence and conflicts, like the Sand Creek Massacre and Battle of Little Bighorn, erupted as settlers encroached on Native territories. - Disease brought by Europeans decimated populations, and forced assimilation efforts, like boarding schools, tried to erase Native cultures. - Native Americans were also confined to reservations, often on poor land, and lost their economic independence. - Overall, westward expansion led to widespread suffering, displacement, and cultural destruction for Native communities. 84. What was the main national issue under President James Polk? - The main issue during President James K. Polk's presidency was territorial expansion. - Polk pursued Manifest Destiny, aiming to expand U.S. territory across North America. - This included the annexation of Texas, settling the Oregon border dispute with Britain, and the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) - which resulted in the U.S. acquiring vast territories in the Southwest through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 85. What was “Manifest Destiny”? - Manifest Destiny was the 19th-century belief that the United States was destined by God to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. - It was a powerful ideological justification for territorial expansion, used to support the annexation of lands like Texas, the Oregon Territory, and the Mexican Cession. - Proponents argued that it was America's mission to spread democracy and civilization, often disregarding the rights of Native Americans and Mexicans. - played a major role in U.S. expansionism during the 1840s. 86. Describe the two key battles in the Texan war for independence. Battle of the Alamo (February 23 – March 6, 1836): - Location: San Antonio, Texas - The Battle of the Alamo was a pivotal event in the Texan War for Independence - A small group of around 180 Texian rebels, including famous figures like James Bowie, William B. Travis, and Davy Crockett, defended the Alamo Mission in San Antonio against a much larger Mexican army led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna. - After 13 days of fierce fighting, the Mexican forces overran the Alamo, killing almost all of the defenders. - Despite the defeat, the battle became a rallying cry for the Texian cause, with the slogan "Remember the Alamo!" spurring many more volunteers to join the fight for independence. Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836): - Location: Near present-day Houston, Texas - The Battle of San Jacinto was the decisive battle of the war. - Led by General Sam Houston, the Texian army launched a surprise attack on General Santa Anna's forces, who were resting near the San Jacinto River. - The Texians swiftly defeated Santa Anna's army in a battle that lasted just 18 minutes. S - Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaty of Velasco, which recognized Texas' independence from Mexico. - This victory effectively ended the war and secured Texan independence. 87. What was the result of the Mexican-American War? - The Mexican-American War (1846–1848) ended with a U.S. victory and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. - As a result, Mexico ceded about half of its territory to the U.S., including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of several other states. - The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million and assumed $3.25 million in debts. The Rio Grande was established as the border of Texas. - This territorial expansion fulfilled Manifest Destiny, but also contributed to tensions over slavery that led to the Civil War. 88. What territories were gained in the Mexican-American War? - California - Nevada - Utah - Arizona - New Mexico - Parts of Colorado, Wyoming, and Kansas - Texas (with the Rio Grande as the border) 89. What was the Bear Flag Revolt? - Led by William Ide and Ezekiel Merritt, the rebels captured Sonoma and raised a flag featuring a bear, declaring the California Republic. - Tensions between American settlers, known as "Anglos," and the Mexican authorities were rising, fueled by Mexico's inability to effectively control the region. - occurred during the broader Mexican-American War, and shortly after, U.S. naval forces took control of California. - The revolt ended when the U.S. annexed the territory, leading to California becoming a state in 1850. - The revolt symbolized California's transition from Mexican to American control. 90. What was the connection between Texas, California, and the debate over slavery? - Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845 as a slave state, increasing the number of slave states in the South. - Texas had claimed a large amount of land in the west, which raised questions about whether slavery would extend into these new territories as Texas sought to solidify its borders and financial stability. - California was acquired by the U.S. after the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) and the subsequent Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - Gold led to popularity - The North supported California's admission as a free state, while the South wanted California to be open to slavery. - The debate over slavery intensified as new territories like California and the lands acquired from Texas (and the Mexican Cession) raised questions about whether they would permit slavery. - Each new free state gave the North more political influence, and each new slave state gave the South more power. 91. What was the Compromise of 1850? - aimed at resolving tensions between the North and South over the issue of slavery and territorial expansion following the Mexican-American War. - California Admitted as a Free State: California entered the Union as a free state, upsetting the balance between free and slave states. - Fugitive Slave Act: A stricter law was enacted requiring that runaway slaves be returned to their owners, even if they escaped to free states. It also penalized those who helped runaway slaves. - Popular Sovereignty in New Territories: The territories of New Mexico and Utah were created, and the question of whether slavery would be allowed was left to be decided by the settlers through popular sovereignty (voting). - Abolition of the Slave Trade in Washington, D.C.: The sale of slaves was abolished in the nation's capital, though slavery itself was still allowed. - Texas Debt Relief: Texas, which had a large debt from its time as an independent republic, was compensated with land to give up claims to certain western territories. - temporarily eased tensions between North and South, but the Fugitive Slave Act and the issue of popular sovereignty fueled further division 92. What were the Kansas and Nebraska Acts? - The Kansas-Nebraska Acts were two laws passed by Congress in 1854 that created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and allowed the settlers in these territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery through popular sovereignty (voting). - The acts organized the regions into territories, opening them up for settlement and potential statehood. - The act allowed settlers in each territory to vote on whether slavery would be allowed, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise (which had banned slavery north of a certain latitude). - The laws led to violent conflict between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers in Kansas, known as "Bleeding Kansas," as both sides rushed to influence the vote. - The acts angered both Northern abolitionists and Southern pro-slavery groups, deepening the divide between the North and South and contributing to the tensions leading to the Civil War. 93. Describe popular sovereignty. - Popular sovereignty was the idea that the people living in a territory should have the right to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, rather than having Congress impose a decision. 94. What was “Bleeding Kansas”? - period of violent conflict in the Kansas Territory between 1854 and 1859, sparked by the debate over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free state or a slave state - debate over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free state or a slave state - Settlers in Kansas to decide the issue of slavery by popular sovereignty (voting), rather than having it decided by Congress. - Pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers rushed into Kansas to influence the vote, leading to violent clashes between the two groups. - These clashes included raids, attacks, and murders, with both sides using violence to gain the upper hand. - Pottawatomie Massacre (1856) - Sack of Lawrence: Pro-slavery forces attacked and looted the town of Lawrence, Kansas, which was known for its anti-slavery stance - symbol of the intense sectional conflict between the North and South over slavery. 95. Who was John Brown, and what two significant events was he involved in? - John Brown was an abolitionist who believed in using violence to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. He is most famous for his involvement in two significant events: Pottawatomie Massacre (1856): - During "Bleeding Kansas", a violent conflict over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free or slave state, Brown led a group of men in the Pottawatomie Massacre. - In May 1856, Brown and his followers killed five pro-slavery settlers in Kansas, hoping to provoke further violence and help the abolitionist cause. - This event escalated the violence in Kansas and made Brown a controversial figure — a hero to abolitionists and a fanatic to pro-slavery supporters. Harper's Ferry Raid (1859): - Brown is most famous for his raid on the federal armory at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) in October 1859. - His goal was to seize weapons and start a slave revolt across the South. - The raid failed, and Brown was captured by U.S. Marines led by Robert E. Lee. He was tried for treason, convicted, and hanged in December 1859. - Although the raid was unsuccessful, it became a rallying point for abolitionists and increased tensions between the North and South, contributing to the outbreak of the Civil War. 96. What was the Dred Scott decision? - Dred Scott was an enslaved African American who had lived in free territories (Illinois and Wisconsin) with his owner and sued for his freedom, arguing that his time in free areas made him a free man. The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, ruled that Dred Scott was not a free man. The Court argued that: - African Americans (whether free or enslaved) were not U.S. citizens and had no right to sue in federal court. - Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, effectively declaring the Missouri Compromise (which restricted slavery in certain territories) unconstitutional. Impact: - The decision further divided the nation, especially between the North and South. - It legalized slavery in the territories, meaning that the federal government could not stop slavery from spreading to new territories. - It heightened tensions leading to the Civil War, as it was seen as a victory for the pro-slavery South and a blow to the anti-slavery North. 97. What was the Fugitive Slave Law? - Required citizens to assist in the capture of runaway slaves, even in free states. - Denied accused fugitives a jury trial or the right to testify in their own defense. - Penalized those who helped runaway slaves with fines or imprisonment. - It increased tensions between the North and South, as many Northerners opposed the law, and it played a role in the rise of the abolitionist movement 98. Why was the result of Lincoln’s election? - Lincoln was elected in 1860, with a platform opposing the expansion of slavery. - Southern states feared slavery would end under his presidency. - Seven Southern states seceded from the Union after his victory. - The Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in 1861. 99. What was the first state to secede? South Carolina - in response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, fearing his policies would threaten slavery - The act of secession set off a chain reaction, with other Southern states eventually leaving the Union, leading to the outbreak of the Civil War. 100. Where were the first shots of the Civil War fired? - were fired at Fort Sumter, a federal military garrison located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861. Identify the significance and achievement each of the following: Joseph Smith Biography: Born in 1805 in Vermont, Joseph Smith claimed to have received visions from God and angels, leading him to translate and publish the Book of Mormon in 1830. He established the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Major Events: Organized the Mormon community, which faced persecution due to their beliefs, including polygamy. Led his followers to establish settlements in Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois (Nauvoo). Murdered in 1844 in Illinois by a mob. Legacy: His teachings and leadership influenced the spread of Mormonism, which remains a significant religious movement today. Dorothea Dix Biography: Born in 1802 in Maine, Dorothea Dix became a schoolteacher and social reformer. Major Events: Visited prisons and poorhouses in Massachusetts, documenting the mistreatment of the mentally ill. Successfully lobbied for state and federal funding for mental asylums. Served as Superintendent of Army Nurses during the Civil War. Legacy: Transformed perceptions of mental illness, advocating for humane care and establishing facilities across the U.S. and Europe. Elizabeth Cady Stanton Biography: Born in 1815 in New York, Stanton was an early leader in the women's rights movement. Major Events: Organized the Seneca Falls Convention (1848), the first women's rights convention. Authored the Declaration of Sentiments, demanding equal rights for women, including suffrage. Partnered with Susan B. Anthony to lead campaigns for women's suffrage and co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association. Legacy: Pioneered the movement that eventually secured women the right to vote with the 19th Amendment. Frederick Douglass Biography: Born into slavery in 1818 in Maryland, Douglass escaped to freedom and became a leading abolitionist. Major Events: Published his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, which exposed the realities of slavery. Founded the abolitionist newspaper The North Star. Advocated for women's rights at the Seneca Falls Convention. Advised President Lincoln during the Civil War and supported the use of Black troops. Legacy: His eloquence and advocacy influenced the abolition of slavery and inspired the fight for civil rights. Henry David Thoreau Biography: Born in 1817 in Massachusetts, Thoreau was a writer, naturalist, and transcendentalist philosopher. Major Events: Lived in isolation at Walden Pond for two years, reflecting on simple living and writing Walden. Protested the Mexican-American War and slavery by refusing to pay a poll tax, leading to his essay Civil Disobedience. Legacy: His philosophy of nonviolent resistance influenced leaders like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr., and his environmental writings helped shape the conservation movement. Ralph Waldo Emerson Biography: Born in 1803 in Massachusetts, Emerson was a transcendentalist, poet, and essayist. Major Events: Wrote influential essays like Nature and Self-Reliance, promoting individualism and spirituality. Delivered public lectures advocating for intellectual independence and abolition. Legacy: Considered a founder of American intellectual thought, influencing literature, philosophy, and social reform. Harriet Tubman Biography: Born into slavery around 1820 in Maryland, Tubman escaped and dedicated her life to helping others gain freedom. Major Events: Worked as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, leading enslaved people to freedom. Served as a scout, spy, and nurse for the Union Army during the Civil War. Advocated for women's suffrage after the war. Legacy: Known as "Moses," Tubman became a symbol of courage and liberation, leaving an enduring impact on abolition and civil rights movements. William Lloyd Garrison Biography: Born in 1805 in Massachusetts, Garrison was a journalist and abolitionist. Major Events: Published The Liberator in 1831, a newspaper dedicated to immediate abolition. Co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society, promoting the end of slavery. Advocated for nonviolent resistance and the equal rights of African Americans. Legacy: His uncompromising stance against slavery and relentless activism influenced public opinion and the abolitionist movement. Nat Turner Biography: Born into slavery in 1800 in Virginia, Turner was a preacher and believed he was called by God to lead his people to freedom. Major Events: Led a rebellion in 1831 in Southampton County, Virginia, killing approximately 60 white people. His rebellion was suppressed, and Turner was executed. Legacy: The revolt caused widespread fear among slaveholders, resulting in stricter laws against African Americans, but also inspired abolitionists. Horace Mann Biography: Born in 1796 in Massachusetts, Mann was an educator and politician. Major Events: Championed universal public education and founded the common school movement. Advocated for teacher training programs and free, nonsectarian public schools. Served as the first Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. Legacy: Considered the "Father of American Public Education," he laid the groundwork for modern public schooling. Brigham Young Biography: Born in 1801 in Vermont, Young became the leader of the LDS Church after Joseph Smith’s death. Major Events: Led the Mormon migration to Utah, establishing Salt Lake City. Served as the first governor of the Utah Territory. Oversaw the construction of the Salt Lake Temple and expansion of Mormon settlements in the West. Legacy: Played a key role in the survival and growth of the LDS Church and shaped the development of the American West. Know the following: Pilgrims - The Pilgrims were a group of English Puritans who sought religious freedom and separation from the Church of England. - In 1620, they sailed to America aboard the Mayflower and established the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts. - Their journey was motivated by religious persecution in England. - Upon arrival, they formed the Mayflower Compact, an early form of self-government, and celebrated the first Thanksgiving with Native Americans in 1621. Areas with Large Concentrations of Slaves - In the 19th century, slavery was most concentrated in the Southern United States, particularly in states like South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Virginia. - These states relied heavily on plantations that produced cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and rice. - The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 made cotton even more profitable, leading to an expansion of slavery. By 1860, there were nearly 4 million enslaved people in the South. The Sons of Liberty - Formed in 1765 in response to the Stamp Act, the Sons of Liberty was a group of colonial activists who organized protests against British policies. - Led by figures like Samuel Adams, they engaged in acts of resistance such as the Boston Tea Party (1773), a protest against the Tea Act. - The group sought to protect colonial rights and resist British taxation without representation. - They were instrumental in organizing public resistance, often using propaganda and direct action. Key Grievances Leading to the Declaration of Independence - The Declaration of Independence (1776) listed grievances against King George III and the British government. Key grievances included: - Taxation without representation: The British government imposed taxes (e.g., the Stamp Act, Townshend Acts) without colonial representation in Parliament. - Unfair legal practices: Colonists were subjected to writs of assistance (search warrants) and trials without juries. - Military presence: The imposition of standing armies in peacetime and the Quartering Act (forcing colonists to house British troops). - Denial of self-governance: Colonies' ability to self-govern was increasingly undermined by British interference. Elastic Clause - The Elastic Clause (also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause, Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution) - Allows Congress to pass laws that are necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers. - This clause grants Congress the authority to legislate on matters not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, which has allowed for an expansion of federal power over time. - For example, it was used to justify the creation of a national bank in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). Supremacy Clause - The Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution) asserts that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the "supreme law of the land," meaning they take precedence over state laws. - If there is a conflict between state and federal law, federal law prevails. - This clause ensures a unified legal system and has been the basis for many landmark Supreme Court decisions, such as Marbury v. Madison (1803). Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist Views - Federalists (e.g., Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) supported a strong central government and the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. They believed in a robust federal system to promote economic stability, national defense, and prevent factionalism. - Anti-Federalists (e.g., Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry) opposed the Constitution, fearing that it would create a central government that was too powerful and would threaten individual liberties. They demanded a Bill of Rights to protect freedoms like speech, religion, and trial by jury. Washington’s Farewell Address - In his 1796 Farewell Address, George Washington advised the nation to avoid political parties and to refrain from entangling alliances with foreign countries, particularly in Europe. - He emphasized the importance of national unity and warned against sectionalism, which could divide the nation. - Washington’s address had a lasting influence on U.S. foreign policy and political culture. North-South Economic Differences - North: The North was rapidly industrializing, with a focus on factories, railroads, shipping, and commerce. It had a mixed economy, including small farms and growing urban areas. The North also benefited from a growing immigrant population that provided labor for factories. - South: The South remained predominantly agrarian, with large plantations relying on slave labor to grow cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and rice. The invention of the cotton gin made cotton the dominant crop, creating a global demand for Southern cotton, particularly in Britain. American Colonization Society - The American Colonization Society (founded in 1816) aimed to resettle free African Americans in Africa. - The society founded the colony of Liberia in 1822 as a destination for freed slaves. - While some African Americans supported this idea, many rejected it, viewing it as an attempt to remove them from the U.S. rather than address racial inequality at home. Oregon Trail - The Oregon Trail was a 2,000-mile route taken by pioneers traveling from Missouri to the Oregon Territory (modern-day Oregon, Washington, and Idaho), beginning in the early 1840s. - Driven by the promise of cheap land and opportunities in the West, many settlers traveled by wagon train, facing hardships like disease, harsh weather, and difficult terrain. - The Oregon Trail played a crucial role in the expansion of the U.S. to the West. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo - Signed in 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). - In the treaty, Mexico ceded over half of its territory to the U.S. for $15 million, including parts of California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah. - The treaty also established the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and Mexico. Gadsden Purchase - In 1853, the U.S. purchased a strip of land from Mexico (now part of southern Arizona and New Mexico) for $10 million. - The purchase was intended to facilitate a southern transcontinental railroad route. - It was a relatively small acquisition, but it helped solidify U.S. control over the southwestern region. Uncle Tom’s Cabin - Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in 1852, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was a powerful anti-slavery novel that portrayed the harsh realities of slavery in the South. - The novel became hugely popular in the North and abroad, helping to fuel abolitionist sentiment. - It played a key role in galvanizing opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act and the expansion of slavery. South Carolina’s Reasons for Secession - In 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, citing concerns over the protection of slavery and states' rights. - The election of Abraham Lincoln, whom they saw as hostile to slavery, was the immediate catalyst. - South Carolina argued that states had the right to nullify federal laws and to secede from the Union if they believed their rights were being violated. Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Side in the Civil War Union (North): - Advantages: Larger population, greater industrial capacity, a more extensive railroad network, stronger navy, and more financial resources. - Disadvantages: Fighting on unfamiliar Southern terrain and the challenge of maintaining political unity. Confederacy (South): - Advantages: Strong military leadership (e.g., Robert E. Lee), defensive strategy, better knowledge of the terrain, and a deep commitment to their cause. - Disadvantages: Limited industry, fewer resources, lack of foreign recognition, and dependence on slavery. Bull Run - The First Battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1861), also called Manassas, was the first major battle of the Civil War. - The Confederacy won, surprising the Union and demonstrating that the war would not be easily won. - It led both sides to prepare for a long and costly conflict. Antietam - The Battle of Antietam (September 17, 1862) was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with over 22,000 casualties -. Though the battle ended in a tactical draw, it was a strategic Union victory because it halted Robert E. Lee's first invasion of the North. - The battle provided President Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Emancipation Proclamation - Issued by Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation declared all slaves in Confederate-held territory to be free. - While it did not immediately free all slaves, it fundamentally changed the nature of the war by making abolition a central goal of the Union war effort and preventing European powers from supporting the Confederacy. Gettysburg - The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) was a turning point in the Civil War.

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