Sheep and Goat Science PDF

3 exams –100 points each Cumulative final exam-100 points 10 Knowledge check quizzes- 5 points each (50 in total) 12 labs- 25 points each (300 points in total) Production plan-200 points Final production plan presentation – 50 points Total-1000 points Week 6 Monday 23rd september –exam 1 Production...

3 exams –100 points each Cumulative final exam-100 points 10 Knowledge check quizzes- 5 points each (50 in total) 12 labs- 25 points each (300 points in total) Production plan-200 points Final production plan presentation – 50 points Total-1000 points Week 6 Monday 23rd september –exam 1 Production plan 1 due Week 10 Wednesday 23rd october-exam 2 Production plan 2 due Week 14 Wednesday 20th november- exam 3 Final production plan due Week 17 Monday 9th december – final exam Lecture 1 –sheep and goat industry overview Decline of sheep inventory in the US History of sheep (ovis aries) Production challenenges -low selling prices/profits for lambs Wild sheep breeds were the original -weather sheep -seasonality of production Mouflons (ovis -predator losses oreintalis) ,urials,argalis,dalli, and -labor shortage bighorns -lamb consumption decline Sheep were a staple of many former U.S presidents Lamb consumption in the us Woodrow wilson grazed sheep on 30% of us consumers have not tried white house front lawn lamb More than 60% of US sheep NE and western US have higher operations located in southern plains, consumption mountain and pacific regions Race, age, income affect purchasing decisions Sheep production  Meat Oct/November- ewes bred in valley -sell feeder lambs to feedlot Dec/march- ewes moved to ‘winter -retain ownership through feedyard ranges0 -feed on farm Early spring- ewes moved to home - sell heavy lambs for slaughter post- ranch and shorn prior to lambing weaning April/may-lambing Wool June-sept- lambs waned mid -private wool warehouses september, ewess moved to higher -cooperative wool warehouses elevation to graze forest - wool pools Bondy condition is critical -40% is sold directly by the producer Commerical producers Dairy Farm flocks Marketing the product -midwest and eastern U.S Meeting goals of the operation- -smaller ( sacrifice pounds of -winter,spring,fall lambing lamb -accelerated lambing -focus on pounds of lamb ->sacrifice -confinement on wool Purebred producers Meet the balance of wool/lamb Seedstock producers United states sheep operations -mating of rams/ewes of same breed Commerical producers -goal to provide seedstock (breeding -meat or wool production on a larger stock) to other producers scale Replacement females or breeding Purebred producers rams -breeding/seedstock -national sheep improvement -show industry program (NSIP) Feeders -use expected breeding values (EBV) -large scale feedlots buying lambs to track and make genetic from commercial producers improvements Commercial producers Show industry -very small representation Range flocks -’club lambs’ for junior livestock -western united states exhibitors -1,000 head or more ( a band) -varying breeds -Rambouillet influenced -typically spring lambing (outdoors or Lamb feeders in a barn for 1-2 days) Lamb producers have two options at -graze on native pastureland weaning Range flocks-its a cycle -sell feeder lambs (50-100lbs) to a feedlot  Feedlot will feed them a concentrates Packer feeding (grain based) diet for the final 30 to 90 About 14% of total lambs days before slaughter slaughtered Sell slaughter lambs (milkfat) that are Packers buy feeder lambs from heavier at weaning and ready for producers, feed them out, and slaughter slaughter at their plant Marketing Captive supply-contract for lambs Challenging dynamic to get final from a producer to a packer well product to the consumer before slaughter Many geographically disrespected Benefits- no more responsibility producers, yet concentrated areas of -no loss if sheep doesn't come processing and consumption out of feedlot Seasonality of production Marketing- slaughter lambs/ cull ewes Direct negotiation Commission buyers/dealers Auction markets Video markets Niche markets 9directly to consumer) Economy of size Fewer plants, but larger in size Per unit cost advantage over smaller plants Feeder lambs Marketing-lamb wholesale/retail Lambs weighing 40-90lbs distribution Ownership transfers to lamb Packers feedlots Wholesale distribution Lambs fed concentrate diet final Retail distribution 30-90 d prior to slaughter Breakers Lamb feedlots highly Non breaker wholesaling firms concentrated Retail firms -Colorado and California Food service industry Estimated 50% of lambs are fed Price discovery among less than 10 feedlots Buyer/seller agreement on price -several with 1-time capacity of of the lot 10,000 hd Begins with market price -many owned by packers Fluctuations around this due to many external factors:  -time and place of transaction Multiple products obtained from one -number of buyers and sellers animal -amount of market information Goat industry is rising for multiple known by buyer/seller reasons Communication of consumer demand is key What causes price fluctuations Price signals Consumer dislikes excess fat on retail lamb cuts Slaughter lambs purchased on WT basis, regardless of fat Lamb feeders have incentive to over feed Meat goat production and marketing Packers endure labor costs to trim fat Not sold in traditional marketplaces in US -directly off the farm Todays goat industry Speciatly markets Meat -ethnic groups 4th widest sonsumed meat in the US -health conscious consumers Leaner than other red meat wanting low fat diet Highly demanded by certain ethnic -high end or gourmet restaurants groups Most producers market goats at 40 to Highly demanded by certain ethnic 60 lns directly to ethnic consumers groups around holidays Directly marketed off farm Goat meat Specialty markets (holidays) Unique flavor and palatabillity Dairy Leaner than other red meats Goat milk is most common milk Typically less tender consumed in many parts of the world Cabrito =roasted meat from goat kids Milk,cheeses,soaps,etc 4 to 8 weeks old (highly sought after Commonly marketed for health by some ethnicities) benefit claims Chevon=meat from goats 40 to 60 lbs The dairy goat industry Excellent converters Booming sector of goat production- Consumer brush or other Non popularity of goat cheese/milk desirable plants California, Wisconsin, and Iowa Co-grazers Shorter lactation period vs cows, milking ~ 250 days/year  What tasks are required Holding Sorting Deworming Vaccination Weighing Foot trimming Shearing Ultra sound What facilities are needed Gathering/forcing pen Sorting or cutting gate/2-3 holding pens 3’ wide chute/small pen 18’’ wide chute Scale (in line or offset) Tip crate or small pen Shearing floor/ 2-3 pens Elevated chute/2-3 pens Facility basics Number of sheep to use is important because -too much space=chasing sheep -too little space= moving sheep from pen to pen About 4-5 ft ^2 per animal in holding pens Facilities and handling Size relative to number of sheep Efficiency Sheep behavior Comfort- animals will respond better in a comfortable environment Wide angle vision Profit - Can see behind them without moving head Operation size plays a big role in what your - 270 degree vision facility will look like Long wool around eyes can impede what management practices will you vision need Sheep are constantly scanning their what time of the year will these occur surroundings How many animals will be handled at Flight zone each time  Sheep tend to go towards light- Net wire/woven fence helpful in enclosed areas Very commonly used Sheep will hesitate with shadows- Should be ≥39’’ tall depth perception is off when head is Issue- gaps in the fence too big and up sheep/goat can get head stuck in it Excessive noise causes more stress Barbed wire and makes sheep more difficult to move More common/useful for sheep 6’strands Breed influence -first 3 strands 6’’ apart Gregarious =flocking instinct -next 8’’ apart; 10’’;23’’ Fine wools (strongly gregarious)- Potential issues with barbed wire- merino, rambouillet, panama, damage to wool quality columbia, targee, lincoln Goats Down breeds ( Weakly gregarious) - - Need 9 strands sussex, southdown, shropshire, - 3’’ suffolk, hampshire, oxford - 4’’,4’’,4’’ Longwools (solitary) -leicester - 5’’,5’’ Facility design - 6’’ - 8’’ Topography -sheep prefer a slight (1%) grade into Electric fence chute area Advantages -remainder should be level ground -cost effective Drainage -allows for temporary fencing -porous soli (w/ rock) to allow excess systems water to drain Disadvantages -pooled water can damage fleece, -easy to misuse harbor disease, and make -sheep and goats love to test it undesirable conditions Need to charge to 4,000 volts- Water access sheep/goats wont respect 200 hd); permanent fencing managed group of animals of similar Small ( spore-producing Food poisioning One of the most common and Banding tails, castrating detrimental diseases in Stiff gait, ‘lock jaw’, convulsions sheep/goat industries Treatment with anti-toxin and Quiescent in the inttestinal tract of antibiotics- typically unsuccessful the animal Urinary calculi Entertoxemia Kidney stones Clostridium perfringens bacteria Caused by calcium/phosphorus in quiescent state within the imbalance- high concentrate diets animals intestinal tract Dribbling urine, straining to Abrupt change in diet- typically an urinate, edema under the belly increase in concentrate (grain) or (‘water belly’) milk replacer in lamb 2:1 ratio calcium:phosporus in Explosive growth of clostridium diet can prevent perfringens within the intestine Polioencephalomalacia (polio or PEM) Bacteria produce toxins that cause Thiamine deficiency necrosis and ulceration of the High sulfure intake – corn by products (DDGS)  Destruction of neurons and Ultrasound brain swelling BCS management Blindness, dilates pupils, ‘star Pregnancy toxemia-situation 2 gazing’ Obese ewe (BCS 4-5) Copper toxicity Inadequate energy intake late Sheep are fed diets/minerals with gestation high Cu (beyond 25 ppm (daily Hypoglycemia (low sugar) intake above 3.5mg/kg of body Pregnancy toxemia –situation 2 weight) Extremely thin ewe (BCS1) Excess Cu stored in liver Inadequate energy intake late Maximum tolerance reached: Cu gestation released into bloodstream Multiple fetuses requiring Massive red blood cell nutrients destruction, severe anemia, Hypoglycemia (low sugar) jaundice Death in 24-48 hours Pregnancy toxemia- both situations Diseases of the ewe/doe Feed intake does not meet energy demand Bacterial and viral abortions Insufficent propionic acid Dystocia production (glucose precursor) Uterine/vaginal prolapse Hypoglycemia Mastitis Mobilization of fatty acid/glycerol Pregnancy toexemia from body Pregnancy toxemia Fatty acids/glycerol oxidized to Time around lambing and earlu form acetyl-Co-A lactation is a period of extreme Breakdown products= ketone stress for the femals bodies accumulate Increased nutrional requirements Increased cortisol, reduced renal Reduced immune response blood flow Delayed clinical signs Brian, kidney, and liver disfunction Metabolic disease near end of Signs of pregnancy toxemia gestation Dull, depressed Typically occurs in older females, Grinding of teeth multiple fetuses, extremely Labored breathing thin/fat animals Frequent urination Maintain production records Severely weak Treatment of pregnancy toxemia Lives in soil forever- eradication Goal is to increase blood sugar difficult -intravenous glucose and oral Contagious ecthyma (soremouth,orf) glycerin Viral infection, highly contagious -Propylene glycol (4-8 oz daily) Pox virus Prevention is best strategy- Zoonotic nutritional management Scab formation Diseases of the ram/ buck Usually clears in 3 weeks Epididymitis Scrapie Pizzle rot Transmissible spongiform Ulcerative dermatosis encephalopathies Scrotal hernia Mad cow disease or chronic Epididymitis wasting disease Inflammation of the epididymis Formation of holes in cells of brain Impairs sperm transport and Slowly progresses (months- years) reduced reproductive efficiency Australia/new Zealand only places Caused by trauma and/or bacteria free of classical scrapie General flock health USDA APHIS -> reportable Prion proteins located on cell Caseous lymphadenitis (CL) surface Johnes disease - Maintain membrane integrity Ovine progressive pneumonia - PrP^c =normal prion (OPP) - PrP^SC = abnormal -> infection Contagious ecthyma (soremouth, causes PrP^c to Prp^sc orf) reaction scrapie Development of clinical signs Caseous lymphadenitis (CL) influenced by genetic makeup Chronis disease caused by Polymorphisms for prion gene that cornebacterium codes for prion proteins pseudotuberculosis Codon 171 Abscesses of lymph nodes and Amino acid substitutions at gene internal organs segments Transmitted via respiratory Q= susceptible aerosols or contaminated material R= resistant for abscess drainage-zoonotic Basics of sheep and goat nutrition Why do we care about nutrition Typical pH 3.5- 4.0 -chief cells Feed represents >_ 70% of Common diets of ruminants reproduction costs Concentrate Poor nutrition= health problems Grass/roughage eaters and reproductive problems Intermediate Ruminants Sheep are grass/roughage eaters Stomach with 4 compartments Prefer grass over legumes Beneficial microbes produce Small intestine relative to body enzymes that break down plant length and shorted proportion of material and make nutrients large to small available for fermentation Goats are intermediate eaters Rumen, reticulum, omasum, Prefer forbs and browse such as abomasum woody,shrubby plants The rumen Adaptable to concentrate/grass/roughage ‘paunch’ Fermentation vat Required nutrients Typical pH of 6.5 -6.8 Water Anaerobic environment-billions of Protein bacteria and protozoa Energy (carbohydrates/fats) The reticulum Minerals Vitamins Honeycomb Collects smaller digesta and Water moves it into the omasum Most essential and limiting Collects ‘hardware’ nutrient The omasum Lean tissue= 70% water Losses of >_ 20% body water = ‘many piles’ death Folds that resemble a book Increased surface area= increased Protein absorptive ability Most common dietary sources Water absorption Cottonseed(41%) The abomasum Soybean (44%) Alfalfa hay (17%) “true stomach” Prairie hay (5%) HCL and pepsin production Corn and oats (10%) Receives pancreatic lipase 3 fractions  CP= crude protein Shift in VFA production to more DIP=degradable intake protein propionate changes the pH to a UIP= undegradable intake protein more acidic environment *rumen bypass protein Starch- digesting bacteria out Muscle= protein compete fiber digesters Protein requirements vary with Diet alters ruminant pH animal age Fat Young, fast-growing animals ~16- 2.25 X more energy than carbs 18 %CP No more than 5% of diet Carbohydrates: forages Vitamins A,D,E, and K Animal consumes forage Minimizes dust Once forage enters the Not a lot of added fat in reticulorumen, it is exposed to sheep/goat diets- can supply microbes that ferment and digest energy elsewhere the cell wall, breaking them down Inadequate energy into cars/sugars Fermentation products are volatile Reduced growth fatty acids (VFAs) which are Reproductive faiulure absorbed through rumen wall and Decreased milk production transported to liver Lowered disease resistance Once in the liver, VFAs converted Lowered tolerance of parasites to glucose via gluocongenesis Increased lamb/ewe mortality Digestion of plant cell wall is slow Optimal energy -> rumination +more saliva ph at Efficient growth ~6 Efficient reproduction Acetate Efficient lactation Carbohydrates: concentrates Efficient wool production Less chewing + ruminating Excessive energy compared to forages, so less Decreased efficiency due to salivary/buffer production excessive fattening which can Most grains have more readily cause: digestible carbs unlike structural Reduced growth carbs of plant cell walls Lower milk production Readily digested, so increase in Increased reproductive losses VFA production Decreased wool growth efficiency Macronutrients A of most forage can meet Sodium (Na) requirements Chloride (Cl) Grains low in Ca but high in P Calcium (ca) Limestone is good for Ca Phosphorus (P) Monocal P for phospherous Magnesium(Mg) Magnesium Potassium(K) Skeletal and nervous systems Sulfur(S) Grass tetany –lactating ewes Micronutrients (trace) grazing early growth grass that is Cobalt (Co) low in Mg Copper(Cu) Sulfur Flouride(Fl) Protein metabolism Iodine(I) S component of amino acids Iron (Fe) Methionine/ cysteine and B- Manganese (Mn) vitamins biotin/thiamine Molybdenum (Mo) Mature ewes = 0.14-0.18% Selenium (Se) Growing lambs =0.18-0.26% Zinc(Zn) Sulfur deficiency- loss of appetite, reduced gain, reduced wool Sodium chlorine (NaCl) growth Commonly supplemented Sulfur toxicity- causes Se retention Deficiency can lead to- and leads to polio in lambs reduced feed/water intake, Sulfur toxixity milk production, growth Dried distillers grains w/ Animals deficient in salt may solubles chew on wood/dirt Contain >_ 0.4% sulfur Ad libitum access after Inconsistent S analyses deprivation =toxic Cheap protein and energy Calcium and phosphorous supplement Development/maintenance of Copper skeleton Nervous system Metabolic issues with Ca : P Cu requirements for sheep imbalance influenced by dietary s and mo Recommended Ca : P of 2:1 Form insoluble compleces with Cu, reducing absorption Copper requirements Total DM intake Dietry intake should not exceed 25 - 2.5 to 3.5% BW (sheep) ppm for sheep - 3 to 5% BW(goats) Excesse = anemia, jaundice, death Goal is to meet nutrient Goats are not as sensitive to requirements at lowest cost copper Empirical studies- to determine what the requirement is Selenium Factores impacting nutrient requirements Regulated by FDA- can be added to complete diet up to.3 ppm Physical – Age, weight, breed, and White muscle disease – important sex in baby lambs/goats Environmental – temperature, Geographic region impacts Se humidity, wind velocity usage Productive function- maintenance, Toxicity can occur by eating some growth, reproduction, etc. plants Animal sex/age impacts nutrient Vitamins requirements Sheep require A,D, and E At similar weight, rams are more B-vitamins and vit K syntehsized in muscular and have less fat than rumen ewes Vit A is absent in most plant Early lide- young lambs require material , but B- carotene can be greater nutrients/ unit of BW converted to Vit A Breeding flock Vit E – grains and harvested - Yearlings have > miantenance forages contain variable amounts energy requirement - Closely related to Se - Younger ewes on range spend more time traveling Thiamine (B1), riboflacin (B2), - Ewes >_ 5 years of age struggle Niacin (B6) and choline are not with grazing required Manage groups separately B vitamins and vit K can be according to needs synthesized by the rumen Deficiency in Vit B can lead to Weight impacts nutrient requirements polio(PEM) and death. Will cary greatlu with breed type- Nutrional requirements of sheep and all other tings equal, heavier goats animals require more of each nutrient rhan light animals The basics  NRC requirements established by If requirements for first 3 are not weight met, then your female will not BCS critically important: related to reproduce weight- thinner ewes should be fed Nutritional periods of the female: to next heavier wt category and breeding fatter ewes to next lower category Nutrional flushing- elevatinf the NRC(national reasearch council)- plabe of nutrition before breeding nutrient requirements of small rumiants Objectives: Stage of production impacts nutrient - Boost ovulation rate Requirements - Improve conception and embryo Growing lambs requirement much implantation % different than ewes in lactation - Can also increase the proportion - Higher protein deposition, most of females in estrous nutrients partitioned for growth Can boost lambing/kidding rates Ewes/does are going to have the by 10-20% most productivity Nutritional flushing Nutritional periods of the female: Sheep (2 weeks) and goats (3-4 maintenance weeks) before breeding Around 80-90 days DMI and all nutrient requirements Ewe/doe is ‘dry’ increased above maintenance Feed level can be lowered to save Goal is to improce BCS money - Move to better pasture Impactedd by BW - Supplemental energy (typically During maintencance, wool ¾ -1 lb of corn/d) production is continous which Nutritional periods of the female: requires more nutrients gestation Nutritional periods of the Early gestation (0-50d) female:breeding - Only slightly higher than Priorties of the female nutritionally maintenance 1. Maintenance (herself) - Goal: to maintain BCS to 2. Growth (can vary depending on sustain pregnancy age) Late gestation (105 d to 3. Lactation lambing) 4. Reproduction - Fetal growth is highest last 50-60 d  - Nutritional status of ewe - Ground or cracked ingredients should increase 20% preffered - Metabolic issues can occur Growing/finishing lambs w/ bad managment - Directly off the ewe (early weaned Nutritional periods of the - Most slaughter lambs – feeder female:lactation lambs/ milk fat lambs Early lactation The ideal slaughter lamb - 2 to 3 weeks after lambing - 0.15 -0.25’’ of backfat - Additional protein/energy - USDA yield grade of 1.5-2.9 required Concentrates- grain, feed for Mid lactation- peak lactaion at 21 energy days post lambing Relative feeding value Last lactation- lambs weaned ~60 Feed addtitives day - Antibiotics (need a vetineary Nutrition of the lamb/kid feed directive; VFD) - Antibiotics can prevent Nutritional managment of the disease/ improve gain lamb/kid starts in utero - Coccidiostats common in Poor nutrition to ewe =poor fetal young lambs- decoquinate development (Deccox) Poor nutrition to ewe= poor milk - Ammonium chloride (0.5%) production Forages Lamb/kid management pre weaning- creep feeding is Pasture, forbs, browse common ‘ learn when to feed them to make Creep feeding a dollar; and learn when to not feed them to save a dollar’ Supplemental diet provided to Can maintain animals for a lot of lambs (not ewes) while they are their production cycle on pasture still nursing Used heavily in intensive Hay production systems or those Forage that has been mowed and selling show livestock cured (dried) Creep diets not complex Primary source of nutrients during - Intake is low; main purpose is winter to increase energy Proper harvesting/storage to - Lambs 50lb. (14-16% CP) - Highly variable  - Have your hay analyzed Supply cost effective nutrients to animal Quality is important –Depends on time of year, nutrient - Legumes have 50-70% more requirements protein and 3x Ca than grass Manage parasites - Good quality grass beats low –Rotational grazing can help re-infection quality legume Feed the right hay at the right time Vegetation management - Supply nutrients required at –Control of invasive plants lowest cost 4 principles of grazing management Average quality grass hay can Stocking rate meet maintenance requirements Species of livestock of ewe/doe Distribution of livestock Grass hay can almost always Season of grazing satisfy ram/weather requirements Gestation/lactation- when higher Stocking rate quality, more nutrient dense hays Number of animal unit equivalents should be fed grazing a unit of land during the entire Grasses – Bermudagrass, bromegrass, annual grazing season kentucky bluegrass, native grasses, Most important management decision orchardgrass, reed canaygrass, ryegrass, –Cannot compensate this with any other tall fescue, timothy method Legumes- alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, cow Improper management = overgrazing peas, lespedeza, peanut, red clover, –Increased soil erosion, establishment of soybean, white clover/lardino, vetch undesirable plants, loss of desirable Feeding hay for the female plants Late gestation Area of land per animal unit equivalent - Increased Ca requirement (AUE) - Feed a mixed grass/legume Animal unit (AU) hay (brome/alfalfa) Lactation –1,000 lb cow is the standard - High protein and even –Avg daily forage demand of 26 lbs DM higher Ca requirement AUE expresses forage requirements of a - Feed alfalfa hay species relative to one AU Nutrition as a whole is a holistic approach 1 Au (standard)= 1,000 Grazing managment for sheep and goats (weight)=1.00 (animal unit Why graze equivalent) (cow-calf)  A 1,300 lb cow is considered 1.3 Spatial distribution of animals across animal units the grazing landscape To calculate a stocking rate, you –Fencing and planned grazing systems need to know: –forage production (total lbs/acre) What happens if we have poor –Grazable forage (assume 0.25 distribution? “take half/leave half” principle) –‘patch grazing’ of favored areas –Annual AU intake –AUE you are working with Topography impacts distribution Stocking rate example –Which kind of producer might this affect most? Assumed forage production: 1,500 lb/ac Season of grazing –1,000 ac of pasture to be grazed Delaying grazing on seasonal rangeland 1,500 x 1,000 = 1.5 mil total lbs of forage until the growth of the major range forage 1.5 mil / 4 (amount of grazable forage)= plants is sufficiently advanced that 375k defoliation does not have an adverse effect of plant vigor 375k / (26 x 365) = 39.51 / 0.2 AUE Types of grazing systems 197 sheep in a year Set stocking Considerations for stocking rate Rotational grazing Critical management decision times– Managmenet- intensive grazing Docking, weaning, shearing (Cull excess (MIG) animals?) Set stocking Long-term climate forecasts–Potential Continous grazing for forage growth Animals of one or more species Specied of livestock remian in the same pasture for extended period of time Multispecies grazing common Animals have the opportunity to Key principle of grazing graze re-growth of forage management- preferred plants die over time, while avoided plants Benefits decrease - Minimal overhead cosst - Less management Targeted grazing Disadvantages Distribution of livestock  - Lower stocking rate and but using portable fencing pasture productivity systems - More forage loss from tampling Health issues on pasture - Lower forage yield and quality - Uneven manure distribution Parasites - Uneven pasture use - Haemonchus contrortus - Weed growth - Rotational grazing Foot problems- foot rot, injures Rotational grazing Predatiors Pasture sub-divided into smaller Metabolic issues – grass tetany, paddocks and animals are moved urinary calculi, hypocalemia from paddock to paddock in Health issues associated specifically systematic pattern w/forages ‘8 paddock, 4 day rotation’ Bloat Rotational grazing: an example - Build up of gas within the Forage in every paddock gets to rumen rest 28 days between grazing - Animals grazing lush green sessions grass In this 32-day period (8 paddocks x Fescue toxicosis- endophyte 4 days), forages in any paddock Nitrate poisoning are resting 87.5% of the time Toxic plant species Less strain on forage Soil and air temperature, moisture availability, species composition, plant growth rates, fertilizer application, etc are not constamt Extra livestock added/removed to adjust stocking density Management- intensive grazing (MIG) Forage allocated to the animals by fencing an appropriate area of pasture Similar structure to rotational grazing except the paddocks are established within one pasture,