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Questions and Answers

Which vitamin is typically absent in most plant material but can be derived from B-carotene?

Vitamin A (correct)

Vitamin K

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Which of the following statements is true regarding the nutrient requirements of young lambs?

Young lambs require less nutrients per unit of body weight than older sheep.

Young lambs require specific vitamin D supplementation only.

Young lambs can survive on just pasture without any additional nutrients.

Young lambs require greater nutrients per unit of body weight. (correct)

What is the consequence of Vitamin B deficiency in sheep?

It can lead to polioencephalomalacia (PEM) and death. (correct)

It causes increased fat accumulation in sheep.

It results in aggressive behavior among rams.

It improves reproductive performance in ewes.

Why do yearling sheep have greater maintenance energy requirements compared to older ewes?

They are growing and developing muscle mass. Signup and view all the answers

In terms of nutrient management, what strategy should be employed for a flock of ewes older than five years?

Manage them separately, as they struggle with grazing. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary nutritional requirement for ewes during late gestation?

Increase nutritional status by 20% Signup and view all the answers

Which period of lactation requires additional protein and energy for ewes?

Early lactation Signup and view all the answers

What is a common metabolic issue that can occur with poor management in ewes?

Metabolic disorders Signup and view all the answers

What is the ideal backfat measurement for slaughter lambs?

0.15 - 0.25 inches Signup and view all the answers

What is a common issue caused by poor nutrition to the ewe during pregnancy?

Poor fetal development Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of creep feeding for lambs?

To provide a supplemental diet while nursing Signup and view all the answers

What nutritional management practice starts in utero for lambs and kids?

Nutritional management of the ewe Signup and view all the answers

What type of feed is preferred due to its digestibility and nutritional quality for lambs?

Ground or cracked ingredients Signup and view all the answers

During which lactation phase is peak lactation typically observed?

Mid lactation Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of antibiotics, according to nutritional management for lambs?

Preventing disease and improving gain Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions can result from an imbalance of calcium and phosphorus in a sheep's diet?

Urinary calculi Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of enterotoxemia in sheep?

Abrupt diet changes Signup and view all the answers

What does pregnancy toxemia in ewes typically result from?

Obesity or inadequate energy intake Signup and view all the answers

What dietary elements can contribute to copper toxicity in sheep?

High copper levels in minerals Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a treatment for enterotoxemia in sheep?

Antitoxins Signup and view all the answers

What causes polioencephalomalacia in sheep?

Thiamine deficiency Signup and view all the answers

What condition can lead to improper feeding that causes blindness and other neurological symptoms in sheep?

Polioencephalomalacia Signup and view all the answers

Which dietary practice can help prevent urinary calculi in sheep?

Maintaining a 2:1 calcium to phosphorus ratio Signup and view all the answers

Which environmental factor can influence the nutritional health of sheep?

Confinement systems Signup and view all the answers

What is a direct result of abrupt dietary change in sheep?

Risk of enterotoxemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum tolerance level of copper for sheep in their diet?

25 ppm Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to manage the body condition score (BCS) of pregnant ewes?

To prevent pregnancy toxemia Signup and view all the answers

Which dietary adjustment is necessary for ewes during late gestation?

Improve energy intake Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Nutritional Requirements of Ewes

Ewes require increased nutritional intake during pregnancy, lactation, and reproduction, especially in late gestation (105 days to lambing) due to high fetal growth.
Recommend increasing the ewe's nutrition by 20% to maintain Body Condition Score (BCS) and support pregnancy.
Proper nutritional management is crucial to avoid metabolic issues.

Lamb/Kid Nutrition

Lamb/kid nutritional management starts in utero, highlighting the importance of the ewe's diet.
Poor ewe nutrition can result in poor fetal development and reduced milk production.
Creep feeding is a common practice for lambs, offering supplemental diets while they are still nursing.
Creep feeding is particularly useful in intensive production systems or for show livestock.
Creep diets should contain high energy for increased growth.

Lamb Feeding for Growth and Finishing

Growing/finishing lambs can be directly off the ewe (early weaned) or raised for slaughter as feeder lambs/milk fat lambs.
Ideal slaughter lambs typically have 0.15-0.25 inches of backfat and a USDA yield grade of 1.5-2.9.
Concentrates like grains are essential for providing energy for growth.

Feed Additives and their Uses

Antibiotic use requires a veterinary feed directive (VFD).
Antibiotics can help prevent diseases and improve weight gain in lambs.
Coccidiostats, like decoquinate (Deccox), are commonly used in young lambs to prevent coccidiosis.
Ammonium chloride (0.5%) can be added for specific nutritional purposes.

Forage Management

Pasture, forbs, and browse can be cost-effective forage sources for livestock production, maximizing profits.
Hay is a crucial forage source, especially during winter, and proper harvesting and storage are important for optimal nutrient preservation.

Sheep and Goat Industry Overview

The sheep inventory in the US is in decline due to a variety of challenges, including low selling prices for lambs, weather, seasonality of production, predator losses, labor shortage, and lamb consumption decline.
Lamb consumption in the US is low: only 30% of consumers have tried lamb.
Higher lamb consumption is found in the Northeast and Western US.
Purchasing decisions are influenced by race, age, and income.

Sheep Production

Meat
- Feeder lambs (50-100lbs) are sold to feedlots, or producers retain ownership and feed lambs on farm.
- Lambs are sold for slaughter post-weaning.
Wool
- Wool production is marketed using private and cooperative warehouses, wool pools, and direct producer sales.
- Producers typically sell 40% of their wool directly.
Dairy
- Goat milk is a growing market.
- Products include milk, cheese, soap, and other goods.
- Goat milk is often marketed for health benefits.

United States Sheep Operations

Commercial Producers
- Focus on meat or wool production at a larger scale.
Purebred Producers
- Specialize in breeding and seedstock; show industry.
Feeders:
- Large-scale feedlots purchase lambs from commercial producers.
Range Flocks:
- Located in the Western US.
- Typically graze on native pastureland.
- Consist of 1,000 head or more (a band).
- Often influenced by Rambouillet sheep breeds.
- Lambing occurs in the spring, either outdoors or in barns for 1-2 days.

Range Flocks - A Cycle

Ewes are bred in the valley during October and November.
During December to March, they are moved to winter ranges.
Ewes are moved to their home ranch in the early spring and shorn before lambing.
Lambing takes place in April and May.
Lambs are weaned in mid-September, and ewes are moved to higher elevation areas to graze in the forest.
Body condition of ewes is crucial.

Commercial Producers

Farm Flocks
- Located in the Midwest and Eastern US.
- Smaller flocks.
- Lambing occurs in the winter, spring, and fall.
- Accelerated lambing and confinement are common practices.
Purebred Producers
- Focus on mating rams and ewes of the same breed.
- Goal is to provide seedstock (breeding stock) to other producers.
- They sell replacement females or breeding rams.
- National Sheep Improvement Program (NSIP) is used to track and make genetic improvements.
Show Industry
- Small representation of the sheep industry.
- Lambs are bred for junior livestock exhibitors.
- Various breeds are used.

Lamb Feeders

Lamb producers have two options after weaning:
- Sell feeder lambs (50-100lbs) to feedlots.
- Packers can feed out lambs and slaughter them at their facility.

Packer Feeding

About 14% of lambs slaughtered are packer-fed.
Packers purchase feeder lambs from producers, feed them out, and slaughter them at their plant.

Captive Supply

Producers contract feeder lambs to a specific packer before slaughter.
Benefits include reduced responsibility and no loss if a lamb does not make it out of the feedlot.

Marketing: Slaughter Lambs and Cull Ewes

Options include:
- Direct negotiation.
- Commission buyers/dealers.
- Auction markets.
- Video Markets.
- Niche markets (directly to the consumer)

Economy of Size

There are fewer slaughter plants, but they are larger in size.
This provides a per-unit cost advantage over smaller plants.

Marketing - Lamb Wholesale/Retail Distribution

Packers: slaughter lambs.
Wholesale Distribution: companies that distribute lamb wholesale.
Retail Distribution: firms that sell lamb retail.
Breakers: companies that prepare lamb for wholesale and retail.
Non-breaker wholesaling firms: firms selling lamb wholesale, but not preparing it.
Food service Industry: (restaurants, etc.)

Price Discovery

An agreement between buyer and seller on the price of a lot of lambs.
The market price is the starting point for price discovery.
Factors influencing price fluctuations include:
- Time and place of transaction.
- Number of buyers and sellers.
- Amount of market information available to buyers and sellers.
- Communication of consumer demand (is key).

What Causes Price Fluctuations?

Price Signals: market signals related to supply and demand.
Consumer Dislikes: Consumers typically dislike excess fat on retail lamb cuts.
Slaughter Lambs Purchased on WT Basis: Slaughter lambs are purchased by weight, regardless of fat content.
Lamb Feeders Overfeeding: Lamb feeders are incentivized to overfeed lambs since they are paid based on weight.
Packer Labor Costs: Packers incur labor costs to trim fat.

Meat Goat Production and Marketing

Goat meat is not traditionally sold in US marketplaces:
- Goats are usually marketed directly off the farm:
- Niche markets:
  - Ethnic groups.
  - Health-conscious consumers who prefer low-fat diets.
  - High-end or gourmet restaurants.
Most goat producers market goats weighing 40-60 lbs to ethnic consumers, especially around holidays.

Goat Meat Characteristics

Unique flavor and palatability.
Leaner than other red meats.
Typically less tender than other red meats.

Cabrito

Roasted meat from goat kids aged 4 to 8 weeks old.
Highly sought after by some ethnicities.

Chevon

Meat from goats weighing 40 to 60 lbs.

The Dairy Goat Industry

A booming sector of goat production:
- Due to the popularity of goat cheese and milk.
- Major producers are in California, Wisconsin, and Iowa.
- Goats have shorter lactation periods than cows, milking for approximately 250 days a year.

Goat Dairy Products

Goat milk is the most commonly consumed milk in many parts of the world.
Products include milk, cheese, soap, etc.
Goat milk is often marketed for health benefits.

Goats- Excellent Converters

Goats are excellent converters of consumer brush (or undesirable plants), and are often considered co-grazers.

Facilities and Handling

Efficiency, comfort, and profit are important factors in facility design and handling.
Facility size impacts management practices and the time of year for handling.
The number of animals handled at a time also affects facility design.

Sheep Behavior

Sheep have wide-angle vision and can see behind them without moving their heads (270-degree vision).
Their long wool around the eyes can impair vision.
Sheep are constantly scanning their surroundings.

Flight Zone

Sheep tend to move towards light.
Sheep hesitate with shadows due to poor depth perception when their heads are up.
Excessive noise causes stress and makes sheep more difficult to move.

Breed Influence

Gregarious: Flocking instinct.
- Fine wools (strongly gregarious): Merino, Rambouillet, Panama, Columbia, Targhee, Lincoln.
Weakly Gregarious: Down breeds: Sussex, Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, Hampshire, Oxford
Solitary: Longwools: Leicester.

Facility Design

Topography:
- Sheep prefer a slight (1%) grade into the chute area.
- The remainder of the facility should be level ground.
Drainage:
- Porous soil (with rock) allows excess water to drain.
- Pooled water can damage fleece, harbor diseases, and create undesirable conditions.

Water Access

Important
Sheep/goats are constantly scanning their surroundings
Continuous access to water is essential.

Fencing

Net wire/woven fence: Very common but can cause sheep/goats to get their head stuck in gaps.
- Must be at least 39 inches tall.
Barbed wire: More common and useful for sheep:
- 6 strands are recommended.
- The first three strands should be 6 inches apart, the next 8 inches apart, the following 10 inches apart, and the final 23 inches apart.
- Barbed wire can damage fleece quality.
Goats: Need 9 strands:
- 3 inches.
- Then 4 inches each.
- 5 inches, 5 inches.
- 6 inches.
- 8 inches.
Electric Fences:
- Cost-effective.
- Allow for temporary fencing systems.
- Disadvantage - easy to misuse; sheep/goats often test them.
- Need to charge to 4000 volts for sheep and goats to respect them.

Diseases of Sheep/Goats

Food Poisoning:
- One of the most common and detrimental diseases in the sheep/goat industry.
- Caused by spores (often from Clostridium) that live in soil forever.
Entertoxemia:
- Caused by Clostridium perfringens bacteria.
- Bacteria lives quiescently in the intestinal tract of sheep/goats.
- Caused by abrupt dietary changes, especially an increase in concentrates (grain) or milk replacer (in lambs).
- Bacteria produces toxins leading to necrosis and ulceration of the intestine.
Urinary Calculi (Kidney Stones):
- Caused by calcium/phosphorus imbalance, especially high concentrate diets.
- Signs include dribbling urine, straining to urinate, and edema under the belly (water belly).
- A 2:1 calcium to phosphorus ratio in the diet can help prevent it.

Other Diseases of Sheep

Polioencephalomalacia (Polio or PEM):
- Caused by thiamine deficiency.
- Increased sulfur intake (corn by-products like DDGS) can contribute.
- Signs include blindness, dilated pupils, and star gazing.
Copper Toxicity:
- Occurs when sheep consume diets with high levels of copper (above 25 ppm daily intake).
- High Cu is stored in the liver.
- Excess copper can lead to red blood cell destruction, severe anemia, jaundice, and death within 24-48 hours.

Diseases of the Ewe/Doe

Bacterial and Viral Abortions
Dystocia
Uterine/Vaginal Prolapse
Mastitis
**Pregnancy Toxemia **

Pregnancy Toxemia

Occurs around lambing and early lactation.
Ewes experience extreme stress during this time.
Increased nutritional requirements and reduced immune response.
Delayed clinical signs: This is a metabolic disease occurring near the end of gestation.
Common in older ewes, ewes with multiple fetuses, and ewes that are extremely thin or fat.

Pregnancy Toxemia–Situation 1

Obese ewe (BCS 4-5)
Inadequate energy intake late in gestation.
Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).

Pregnancy Toxemia – Situation 2

Extremely thin ewe (BCS 1)
Inadequate energy intake late in gestation.
Multiple fetuses competing for nutrients.
Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).

Mechanism of Pregnancy Toxemia

Feed intake does not meet energy demands.
Insufficient propionic acid production (glucose precursor).
Hypoglycemia.
Mobilization of fatty acids and glycerol from the body.
Oxidation of fatty acids and glycerol to form acetyl-CoA.
Breakdown products (ketone bodies) accumulate.
Increased cortisol and reduced renal blood flow.
Brain, kidney, and liver dysfunction.

Signs of Pregnancy Toxemia

Dull and depressed.
Grinding teeth.
Labored breathing.
Frequent urination.
Severely weak.

Treatment of Pregnancy Toxemia

Goal is to increase blood sugar:
- Intravenous glucose and oral glycerin.
- Propylene glycol (4-8 oz daily).

Prevention of Pregnancy Toxemia

Nutritional management is key.

Diseases of the Ram/Buck

Epididymitis: Inflammation of the epididymis.
- Impairs sperm transport.
- Reduced reproductive efficiency.
- Caused by trauma or bacteria.
Pizzle Rot
Ulcerative Dermatosis:
Scrotal Hernia

General Flock Health

Caseous Lymphadenitis (CL):
- Chronic disease caused by Cornebacterium pseudotuberculosis.
- Causes abscesses in lymph nodes and internal organs.
- Transmitted via respiratory aerosols or contaminated material from abscess drainage. Zoonotic.
Johne’s Disease
Ovine Progressive Pneumonia (OPP)
Contagious Ecthyma (Soremouth, Orf)
- Viral infection that is highly contagious.
- Caused by Pox virus.
- Zoonotic.
- Causes scab formation.
- Usually resolves in 3 weeks.
Scrapie:
- Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.
- Similar diseases include "Mad Cow Disease" and chronic wasting disease.
- Causes formation of holes in brain cells.
- Slowly progresses (months to years).
- Australia/New Zealand are the only places free of classical scrapie.
- Reportable to USDA APHIS.

Scrapie - Prion Protein

Prion proteins are located on the cell surface.
Maintain membrane integrity.
PrP^c = normal prion protein.
PrP^sc = abnormal prion protein.

Scrapie - Development of Clinical Signs

Genetic makeup affects the development of clinical signs.
Polymorphisms for the prion gene that codes for prion proteins.
Codon 171 in the prion gene is significant.
Amino acid substitutions occur in gene segments.
- Q = susceptible to scrapie.
- R = resistant to scrapie.

Basics of Sheep and Goat Nutrition

Why is Nutrition Important?
- Feed typically represents >_ 70% of reproduction costs.
- Poor nutrition can lead to health problems and reproductive problems.

Ruminants - 4 Compartments Stomach

Rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
Ruminants have beneficial microbes that produce enzymes to break down plant material and make nutrients available for fermentation.

The Rumen

The “paunch.”
A fermentation vat with a typical pH of 6.5-6.8.
Anaerobic environment with billions of bacteria and protozoa.

The Reticulum

The “honeycomb.”
Collects smaller digesta and moves it to the omasum.
Collects “hardware.”

The Omasum - “Many Piles”

Folds resemble a book.
Increased surface area leads to increased absorptive ability.
Water absorption occurs here.

The Abomasum

The “true stomach.”
Produces hydrochloric acid (HCL) and pepsin.
Receives pancreatic lipase.

Crude Protein

CP = crude protein.
DIP = degradable intake protein.
UIP = undegradable intake protein.
Rumen bypass protein: Protein that bypasses rumen fermentation.

Protein Requirements

Protein requirements vary with age.
Young, fast-growing animals require ~16-18 % CP.
Muscle is composed of protein

Carbohydrates: Forages

Sheep/goats consume forages.
Once forage enters the reticulorumen, it is exposed to microbes that ferment and digest the cell wall, breaking down carbohydrates.
Fermentation products are VFAs (volatile fatty acids).
VFAs are absorbed through the rumen wall and transported to the liver.
They are converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Digestion of plant cell walls is slow, requiring rumination and saliva production to maintain a pH of ~6.

Carbohydrates - Concentrates

Less chewing/ruminating than forages.
Less saliva production.
Most grains have more readily digestible carbohydrates than forages.
Readily digested which increases VFA production.

Diet Alters Ruminant pH

As ruminants consume more concentrates, the pH of the rumen shifts to a more acidic environment, as VFA production shifts to more propionate.
This is due to starch-digesting bacteria outcompeting fiber digesters.

Fat

Fat provides 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates.
No more than 5% of the diet should be fat.
Added fat in sheep/goat diets is minimized as energy can be supplied through other means.

Energy

Inadequate Energy:
- Reduced growth.
- Reproductive failures.
- Decreased milk production.
- Lowered disease resistance.
- Lowered tolerance to parasites.
- Increased lamb/ewe mortality.
Optimal Energy:
- Efficient growth.
- Efficient reproduction.
- Efficient lactation.
- Efficient wool production.
Excessive Energy:
- Decreased efficiency due to excessive fattening which can lead to:
  - Reduced growth.
  - Lower milk production.
  - Increased reproductive losses.
  - Decreased wool growth efficiency.

Macronutrients

Sodium (Na)
Chloride (Cl)
Calcium (CA)
Phosphorus (P)
Magnesium (Mg)
Potassium (K)
Sulfur (S)

Micronutrients (Trace)

Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Fluoride (Fl)
Iodine (I)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Selenium (Se)
Zinc (Zn)

Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Commonly supplemented.
Deficiency can lead to:
- Reduced feed and water intake, as well as milk production and growth.
- Animals may chew on wood or dirt.
Ad libitum access is important after a period of deprivation, as too much salt can be toxic.

Calcium and Phosphorus

Essential for development and maintenance of the skeletal system.
Metabolic issues may occur if calcium:phosphorus balance is imbalanced.
Recommended ratio is 2:1 (calcium:phosphorus).

Magnesium

Important for skeletal and nervous systems.
Grass tetany can occur in lactating ewes that graze early growth grass that is low in Mg.

Sulfur

Essential for protein metabolism.
A component of amino acids (methionine and cysteine), as well as B vitamins (biotin and thiamine).
Mature ewes require 0.14-0.18% sulfur, while growing lambs require 0.18-0.26% sulfur.
Sulfur Deficiency:
- Loss of appetite.
- Reduced weight gain.
- Reduced wool growth.
Sulfur Toxicity:
- Causes selenium retention.
- Leads to polio in lambs.

Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS)

Contains ~0.4% sulfur.
Inconsistent sulfur analyses reported.
Cheap protein and energy source but can be a sulfur supplement.

Copper

Essential for nervous system function.
Copper requirements for sheep are influenced by dietary sulfur and molybdenum.
Copper can form insoluble complexes with sulfur and molybdenum, which reduces copper absorption.

Copper Requirements in Sheep

Dietary intake should not exceed 25 ppm for sheep.
Excess copper can lead to anemia, jaundice, and death.
Goats are not as sensitive to copper.

Selenium

Regulated by the FDA and can be added to complete diets up to 0.3 ppm.
Important for white muscle disease in baby lambs and goats.
Geographic region impacts selenium usage.
Selenium Toxicity can occur by eating certain plants.

Factors Impacting Nutrient Requirements

Physical:
- Age.
- Weight.
- Breed.
- Sex.
Environmental:
- Temperature.
- Humidity.
- Wind velocity.
Productive Function:
- Maintenance.
- Growth.
- Reproduction.
- Lactation.

Total DM Intake

Sheep: 2.5-3.5% BW.
Goats: 3-5% BW.
The goal is to meet nutrient requirements at the lowest cost.
Empirical studies are used to determine nutrient requirements.

Sheep and Goat Industry - Key Facts

The sheep and goat industries are complex and diverse with different types of producers and markets.
The decline of sheep inventory in the US raises concerns about the future of the lamb market. Understanding the challenges and factors influencing production, as well as the nutrition and health of livestock is crucial.
The goat industry, particularly in the dairy sector, is experiencing growth.
Consumer preferences have a significant impact on market demands and price discovery.
By understanding the intricacies of sheep and goat production, management, and marketing, producers and industry stakeholders can strive to optimize efficiency and profitability.

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