History Of Architecture 2 Lecture Notes PDF

***pSET 1\_HOA 2\_Lecture Notes*** Course Name **HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE - 2** Course Description Architectural manifestation of civilization and thoughts during the era of western dominance towards post modernism. Number of Units Lecture -- 2 Units For Lecture and Laboratory Number of contact...

***pSET 1\_HOA 2\_Lecture Notes*** Course Name **HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE - 2** Course Description Architectural manifestation of civilization and thoughts during the era of western dominance towards post modernism. Number of Units Lecture -- 2 Units For Lecture and Laboratory Number of contact Lecture -- 2 Hours Hours per Week Prerequisite History of Architecture 1 Course Objectives At the end of the course, the students should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Course Outline 1. Orientation / Introduction 2\. Requirements 3\. Policies 4\. Other diagnostic assessments 5\. Church Architecture 6\. Romanesque Architecture 7\. Gothic Architecture 8\. Man, and Universal Self: Architecture in the Renaissance Period 9\. Man, and His Emotions: Baroque and Rococo Architecture 10\. Man, and the State: Architecture during the growth of the European states 11. 12. 13. 14. Laboratory / Equipment Multi-media equipment Textbooks / References A History of Architecture (latest ed.); Fletcher, Sir Banister History of Western Architecture; Klassen, Winand Great Ages of Man, A History of World Cultures: Age of Faith; Stewart, Modern Architecture Since 1900; Curtis, William Jr. An Introduction to the 20th Century; Peel, Lucy et al. **CHURCH ARCHITECTURE** -------- ---------------------------------- -- **EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE** **BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE** **1** **ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE** **2** **GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE** **3** **RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE** **4** **BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE** **5** **ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE** **6** **NEO-CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE** **7** **ART NOUVEAU ARCHITECTURE** **8** **BEAUX ARTS ARCHITECTURE** **9** **NEO-GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE** **10** **ART DECO ARCHITECTURE** **11** **MODERN ARCHITECTURE** **12** **POST-MODERN ARCHITECTURE** **INFLUENCES** ----------------------------- -- GEOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGICAL CLIMATIC RELIGIOUS SOCIAL HISTORICAL **ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER** **EXAMPLES** **CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES** PLANS WALLS OPENINGS ROOFS COLUMNS MOULDINGS ORNAMENT **VOCABULARIES** **SEAT NO.** **STUDENTS** **GROUP** **ASSIGNED TOPIC** -------------- ----------------------------------- ----------- ------------------------------ **1** **ABE, JHOANA MARIE M.** 1 **ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE** **2** **AGPOON, RICHLY DANE F.** **3** **ALCANTARA, SED WILLBER E.** **4** **ALVAREZ, MARK JOSHUA J.** **5** **AMBROSIO, JEOMELLE S.** 2 **GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE** **6** **BALANAG, JERICHO Z.** **7** **BARTE, IRISH JOY M.** **8** **BASCOS, ANGELA MAE B.** **9** **BULOSAN, LOUELLA JEAN B.** 3 **RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE** **10** **CAOAYAN, RUZZEL V.** **11** **CRUZ, REDIC JOHN P.** **12** **DELA CRUZ, LOUISE EMMANUEL G.** **13** **DEOCARIS, KYLA Q.** 4 **BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE** **14** **DOÑA, JUNSONREY C.** **15** **ESPEDIDO, JEMAR PAUL G.** **16** **ESTROPE, THRIXIE C.** **17** **EUGENIO, BEA S.** 5 **ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE** **18** **GAMELO, GERALDINE N.** **19** **HIDALGO, NICHOLE REIGN B.** **20** **LABITORIA, SONNY JR. L.** **21** **LAVARIAS, FREANCY F.** 6 **NEO-CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE** **22** **LOZANO, ORPHA MAE VA.** **23** **MACALANDA, CARLOS ENRIQUE R.** **24** **MADUEÑO, DANIELLE ANNE V.** **25** **MALICDEM, ANGELICA C.** 7 **ART NOUVEAU ARCHITECTURE** **26** **MAMARIL, JOSHUA A.** **27** **MAYO, ANJIE LOU L.** **28** **MILLA, KATHLEEN JOY D,** **29** **MONTEMAYOR, ASHLEY NICOLE F.** 8 **BEAUX ARTS ARCHITECTURE** **30** **MUÑOZ, JENNIFER A.** **31** **NICOMEDEZ, FRANCINE NICOLE P.** **32** **OBRA, JOSEPH S.** **33** **OFRANCIA, ACE YLMAR C.** 9 **NEO-GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE** **34** **OLIVEROS, JUSTIN JOSE P.** **35** **PARAYNO, JUDINE MICAH S.** **36** **PERALTA III, DAVE DAMILO E.** **37** **PEREGRINO, KERVIN JOSHUA A.** 10 **ART DECO ARCHITECTURE** **38** **QUIAOIT, NIPRITINI E.** **39** **QUINTELA, CHARLYN MAE E.** **40** **RAMIREZ, DEM VINNES V.** **49** **SORIANO, ALPHA GENESIS A.** **41** **RAMOS, JUSTINE CARL A.** 11 **MODERN ARCHITECTURE** **42** **RAQUIZA, JOHN NIÑO C.** **43** **ROSARIO, CARL ANGEL S.** **44** **SAGUN, SHEILA BHEA A.** **50** **SURAT, ANGIE-LYN P.** **45** **SANTILLAN, VERYL JILL A.** 12 **POST-MODERN ARCHITECTURE** **46** **SANTOS, MEL JEAN R.** **47** **SEGURITAN, ADA CHLOE S.** **48** **SOLIS, JP S.** **51** **TALINIO, DAN ANGELO F.** **THE SIX (6) INFLUENCES OF ARCHITECTURE** ** ** - **GEOGRAPHICAL** - **GEOLOGICAL** - **CLIMATIC** - **RELIGIOUS** - **SOCIAL** - **HISTORICAL** **GEOGRAPHICAL** Geography influences architecture. It is the lay of the land. How the land is laid out will determine what type of architecture will look the best. Geography is about so much more than mountains and rivers and maps. It's about how natural surroundings affect cultures and societies and how human beings, in turn, enact change in the world around them. Geography pinpoints the location of a particular country. It may describes either it is near the sea, an island, on the mountains, deserts, and others. Geography aids in grasping how humans adapt their constructions to diverse environmental conditions and regional characteristics. Geography provides insight into how buildings and other structures interact with their environments, influenced by local traditions, climate and resources. ARCHITECTURAL GEOGRAPHY -- is the study of the interaction between built environments and geographical spaces. It focuses on how geographical elements such as location, climate, and natural resources influence. It not only examines individual buildings but also looks at how entire cities are planned and developed. For example, coastal cities often have different architectural styles and urban planning requirements compared to cities located in arid regions. Geography plays a massive role in shaping architectural styles across the globe. Local climate, topography, and available resources influence how buildings are designed and constructed. For example: *Scandinavian Architecture:* Known for its simplicity and functionality, often using wood as the primary material due to its availability. *Desert Architecture*: Such as in the Middle East, often features thick walls and small windows to maintain cooler indoor temperatures. *Tropical Architecture:* Like in Southeast Asia, employs steeply sloped roofs for effective rainwater drainage and large overhangs for shade. **GEOLOGICAL** Geological phenomenon like earthquake certainly has influence on architecture design. Some of geological phenomenon can be avoided, but some of them cannot. Architecture is designed to reduce damage of negative geology influence and become special features. Architecture should adapt environment. In earthquake zones, architecture uses light weight material and avoids stiff connection between structures. Geological describes the materials found in the locality. It is the character, the composition of earth, and the contour of the ground. Materials like stones, trees, reeds, bamboos, clay for bricks, marble, metals, all influence the character of building. **CLIMATIC** Climate definitely influenced architecture design, especially under harsh weather condition. People try to survive in the nature, a dwelling that keep out coldness, rain, wind, too much sunshine must be considered in different regions that have different climate. The different climate is also one of the reasons that architecture is different from each other. Climatic influence is the prevailing climate in the country, if there is much sunshine or little rain, if there are winters with much snow. These affect the character of the building. Example, the roofing of a country with snow should be steep to ward off the snow. While the windows in cold climates should be wide to permit light to enter and warm the rooms.\ \ **RELIGIOUS** Religion has a large influence on architecture. Because of aweing of god, architecture was designed with the top technology and idea. This pushed architecture to a new level. In the ancient time, because of believing in God, religion architecture was normally the greatest in a region, sometimes even better than a king's palace. Different religion has different architecture style. Just by look, it can be distinguished. Temple and church architecture is also a symbol of a religion. As religion starts to spread, architecture of temples and churches were also changing and adapting. With the way of thinking changes, religion architecture was also changing. Religion is also the reason that architecture under same nature environment is different from each other. It is the spiritual tendencies of the people in a particular place/country. If they are pagans, they build temples for numerous gods, if they are Christians, they build churches with altars; and Muslims build mosques.\ \ **SOCIAL** Social environment certainly influenced architecture design. It has a positive influence that architecture become neat and tidy. It also has a negative influence that limited architecture design. Whether in good way or bad way, it is a factor that cannot be ignored. It is an influence comes from human being's society and leads to a result of harmony between people and people. Human lives in groups, regular shapes and limitation certainly will appear. (Social and Political) It is how the people lived and governed, whether they are hostile, friendly, ruled by a king, or under democratic rule. Social considerations are an essential aspect of architecture, as they influence how people interact with the built environment and each other. Designing with social awareness can enhance the quality of life, well-being, and satisfaction of users and communities.\ \ **HISTORICAL** Many events or traditions passed down from generation to generation have a great impact on architecture. Places of gathering or houses all have different styles depending on the tradition or history that took place there. Historical influences are any elements or aspects of architecture that originated or developed in a different time period than the present. They can include styles, forms, materials, techniques, symbols, functions, or meanings. It is the background of the people as a whole. If there are wars happened, buildings would have been ruined and new structures built. **CHURCH ARCHITECTURE** 1. Church architecture is a specialized area of building design that incorporates religious, spiritual and symbolic elements into the architectural style. Church architecture or ***ecclesiastical architecture*** refers to the architecture of buildings of Christian churches. It has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local traditions. Both theological and practical influences on church architecture have included pagan and secular buildings and those of other faiths. Buildings were at first adapted from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as concrete, as well as simpler styles has had its effect upon the design of churches and arguably the flow of influence has been reversed. 2. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the Byzantine churches, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance basilicas, with its emphasis on harmony has been the most significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings often stood out as landmarks or distinguishing feature of the region. 3. The traditions steeped within each tradition have dictated church architecture for centuries. 4. But unlike traditional churches, contemporary church designs often emphasize on the essential components contributing to the overall architectural experience such as space, lines, light, and sound through thoughtful design and less emphasis on the traditional icons and symbolism. Breakthrough in the contemporary church design can be seen or experienced in the form of usage of new materials. 5. Modern church architecture is noted for its economy in material and means, and for its own inherent aesthetic value. Precision and calculation have become new tools of the designer. Lighter materials such as aluminum, glue-laminated wood, stressed skin, and sandwich panel, lightweight concrete, and plastics are being used. Instead of architecture of mass, architecture of volume is given importance. A style liberated from matter is gaining importance. **GENESIS OF CHURCH ARCHITECTURE** The genesis of Church architecture has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis on harmony, as shown in the figure below.A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated ***Growth of Roman Catholic from 3^rd^ Century to 18^th^ Century*** These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were permanent and dominant features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village thus create stability in the various communities of believers. While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration. Buildings were at first adapted from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones that have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation. The matter is complicated by the fact that buildings put up for one purpose may have been re-used for another, that new building techniques may permit changes in style and size, that changes in liturgical practice may result in the alteration of existing buildings and that a building built by one religious group may be used by a successor group with different purposes. **What is a church and how should it be built?** A church is a place of public worship, for prayer, and for the reception of the sacraments. Mandated in the 10th century, the church would be built so that the nave pointed east so that the rising sun would shine on the altar, the faithful would "greet" the risen Christ, and the church would face Jerusalem. Interestingly, since construction of a church typically began on the east side, the west side would have a "newer" architectural style than the east side. **Main Plans** *Latin Cross and Steeple (Basilica Plan Church)* Roman style and basilica plan in the shape of a Latin cross *Greek Cross and Dome (Central Plan Church)* Central plan church in the shape of a Greek Cross with a dome (heaven on earth) Use of mosaics Found mainly in the Eastern Churches **[SIX (6) MAIN STYLES OF]** **[CHURCH ARCHITECTURE:]** **1. Byzantine Architecture** 360-1400 AD A continuation of Greek architecture, it is used mainly in the Eastern churches. Characterized by round arches, the use of brick instead of stone, central plan, domes, and mosaics. Example: 1 - ***Monastery of Hosios Lukas in Phocide, Greece*** 2 - ***Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (Constantinople)*** **2. Romanesque Architecture** Came about during the 11th and 12th century and was seen as a transition from Classical Greek architecture to more "European" architecture. It is characterized by round or slightly pointed arches. Example: 3 - ***Abbey of Jumièges, Normandy, France*** **3. Gothic Architecture** 12th-16th Centuries Gothic comes from Italian: gotico with connotations of "rough and barbarous" coined during the Renaissance. According to a writer during the Renaissance: \"The ancient Greek and Roman architecture answered all the perfections required in a faultless and accomplished building\" \-- but the Goths and Vandals destroyed these" and CCS October 14, 2005 \"Introduced in their stead a certain fantastical and licentious manner of building: congestions of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish piles, without any just proportion, use or beauty.\" Gothic architecture is characterized by ribbed and domed vault, flying buttresses, stained glass windows, pointed arches. The filtered light and soaring heights symbolized the lifting of the spirit towards God. Example: 4 - ***Cathedral of Amiens*** 5 - ***Vaults*** **4. Renaissance Architecture** Began in Florence, Italy in around early 15th century. A revival of Roman architecture and an articulation of forms and space based on precise measurements and proportions based on man. Classically styled columns, geometrically perfect designs, and hemispherical domes characterize Renaissance architecture Example: 6 - ***Florentine Cathedral*** **5. Baroque Architecture** Started in 1600 in Rome and spread throughout Europe. It was influenced by the Church's encouragement that the representative arts should speak to the illiterate masses rather than the educated. This encouragement was due to a canon promulgated at the Council of Trent in 1545-1563. The term is also used to apply to the bad taste or "baseness" in design. Examples: 7 - ***St. Peter's Basilica*** 8 - ***St. Theresa in Ecstasy*** Created a sensual and emotive experience that is illustrative of St Theresa's spiritual connection with God 6. **Rococo Architecture** Originated in 1700s in the French decorative arts and is characterized by elaborate natural forms, curves, and floral patterns. It mirrored the lavishness of Louis XV's court. The term comes from the French word for shell rocaille and Italian barocco for Baroque style. Critics used the term Rococo as a derogative term to imply the frivolousness of the style. **Catholic Encyclopedia:** "For the church the Rococo style may be, generally speaking, compared with worldly church music. Its lack of simplicity, earnestness, and repose is evident, while its obtrusive artificiality, unnaturalness, and triviality have a distracting effect. Its softness and prettiness likewise do not become the house of God." Examples: 9 - ***Love, Vanquisher of Time by Charles Cressent*** 10 - ***Cathedral, Cadiz*** 11 - ***Basilica at Ottobeuren***  *Source:* CHURCH ARCHITECTURE in utccs.org **Church Architecture Styles** -------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Style : Period \* Predominant Features **Link to Churchwonders.com Page for More Info** Classical: 7th c. B.C. to 4th c. A.D. strict adherence to classical orders, symmetry, proportion, rows of columns [[Classical Architecture: 7th Century BCE to 4th Century AD]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/classical-architecture-7th-century-bce-to-4th-century-ad/) Byzantine: After 4th century massive domes, hanging architecture, Byzantine-Greek cross floor plan, mosaics [[Byzantine Architecture: After 4th Century AD]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/byzantine-architecture-after-4th-century-ad/) Romanesque: 11th-12th centuries rounded arches, heavy walls with minimal openings, large apse, central tower and adjacent towers [[Romanesque Architecture: 11th -- 12th Centuries]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/romanesque-architecture-11th-12th-centuries/) Gothic: mid-12th to 16th c. pointed (Gothic) arches, tall, thin columns, rib vaults, flying buttresses, stained-glass windows incl. rose window [[Gothic Architecture: mid-12th-16th Centuries]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/gothic-architecture-10th-14th-centuries/) Renaissance: 15th c. revival of ancient Roman forms incl. the column and rounded arch, domes, proportion, harmony [[Renaissance Architecture: 15th Century]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/renaissance-architecture-15th-century/) Baroque: 17th -- 18th centuries constant movement, highly decorated, curves, contrasting light/dark, bright colors, twisting elements, gilding [[Baroque Architecture: 17th and 18th Centuries]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/baroque-architecture-17th-and-18th-centuries/) Rococo: late 17th to mid 18th centuries "Light-Baroque", curves, scrolls and shells, paler color schemes, gently flowing movement [[Rococo Architecture: Late 17th to mid-18th Centuries]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/rococo-architecture-late-17th-to-mid-18th-centuries/) Neoclassical / Revivalist: late 18th -- 19th centuries symmetry and geometric form, hulking facades, columns, "mixture" of styles [[Neoclassical / Revivalist Architecture: Late 18th and 19th Centuries]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/neoclassical-revivalist-architecture-late-18th-and-19th-centuries/) Modern: started in the 20th century simplicity, starkness, steel, glass, smooth formed-concrete, inventive and unique designs [[Modern Architecture: Started in the 20th Century]](https://churchwonders.com/architecture-symbolism/church-architecture-styles/modern-architecture-started-in-the-20th-century/) \* = Note on time periods \>\>\>\>\>\>\> There was an *evolution* of the styles over the centuries, so the styles *overlapped as they developed* over time. As such, the start and end dates shown here are only indicative *Source:* CHURCH ARCHITECTURE in utccs.org **THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE** Any look at church architecture must acknowledge that there is much more at stake than mere architectural style. The space in which Christians worship has theological significance, as well as social significance in how the church relates to the surrounding world. Developments in church design speak more broadly about Christianity than just its architecture. As L. Michael White notes regarding the early church, Fundamental changes in the nature and setting of Christian assembly, therefore, are of more significance than for the development of architecture alone. They are inextricably tied to all aspects of Christian practice, precisely because assembly and worship were at the center of the religious experience as well as the social expansion of the movement. The church was not just concerned with the building of her churches. For many centuries, it was the building practices of the church which led the way in architectural innovation. This in turn affected the form of cities, as the church was primarily an urban phenomenon. In his history of western cities, Lewis Mumford argues that it is the model of the monastery that influenced the design of medieval cities. Their offer of sanctuary during the uncertain times following the fall of the Roman Empire is echoed by the creation of walled cities during the Middle Ages. Indeed, the monastery acted as a city, through its preservation and transmission of the social heritage. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the church remained as the single powerful and universal institution. The influence of the church was felt in all areas of life, and the practice of building was no exception. As Lewis Mumford explains, No small part of the economic life was devoted to the glorification of God, the support of the clergy and of those who waited on the clergy, and to the construction and maintenance of ecclesiastical buildings - cathedrals, churches, monasteries, hospitals, schools. Note here the concern and interest of the church in building a number of different types of buildings in order to foster Christian practices of worship, caring for the sick, and education. As the powerful institution with money and a desire to glorify God through beautiful buildings, the church exerted much influence upon architecture. Because of this influence, the church was often at the forefront of architectural innovation. *Source:* BUILDING THE CHURCH: THE FUTURE OF CATHOLIC CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN LIGHT OF NARRATIVE VIRTUE ETHICS AND NEW URBANISM **RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE IN TRANSITION** Church architecture is more complex than most people think. Furthermore, there is no ultimate formula for the perfect design. Each church, temple, cathedral, or another religious building has its own unique beauty and style. Churches in Germany were only constructed in historical styles, such as the Romanesque and the Gothic style up until World War I. Afterwards, the new architectural styles which were developed until the 1950s were characterized by freedom and a new beginning. The architects, Le Corbusier and Don Bosco, served as role models. Their religious architecture shows an expressive design language which, for example, is clearly illustrated in the pilgrimage church of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp, France. In addition, it was intended that everyone gather around the altar and the opposition between priest and congregation was eliminated. Architecturally, this was reflected, for example, in the arrangement of the altar in the middle of the church space, surrounded by pews. Modern church buildings are also a mirror of their time. Century-old traditions play an equally important part, as do innovation and sustainability. The opulent facilities in churches from earlier eras has given way to a new minimalism: instead of sensory overload there is a reduction in what is essential. This creates space for the transcendent experience: the encounter with God. Art - formerly present as paintings, sculptures and frescoes - shows itself in modern churches through a plain and different form. *Source:* MODERN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE: BETWEEN TRADITION AND MINIMALISM in allplan.com ***CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IS EVOLVING*** *Architecture is constantly changing **to keep up with humanity\'s ever-changing requirements**. From the need for shelter and safety and security to the need for comfort and beauty and technology, there are many reasons why architecture changes over time.* **READING MATERIALS** A blueprint of a diagram Description automatically generated   A blueprint of a building  A blueprint of a building Description automatically generated  A blueprint of a pyramid Description automatically generated  May be an image of text that says \'THEODOR Church Art and the Liturgy theological \"house God\" Unlike the pagans, who but simply the witness and form Holy God\" divine image the temple divinity dwelleth physical body Temple God. living God\" sense have been (John rhetoric when 16). The their Lord. Paul that are that temple, because Ecclesia, i.e., those house shall hold fast truly may Lord. \"But Christ confidence and glory own house: ne Over God and will make this spiritual means built abode living essentiaily Spirit distinction with kind Apostle calls spirit \"Know alike, Spirit This your spirit and This existence society. Hence Holy temple\'  May be an image of text  May be an image of text  May be an image of text  May be an image of text  May be an image of text  May be an image of text that says \'indeed nelf-natinfied, lovel regarded Divine Renlity and human ollort, all of God\" (Col. the God has taken which Hidden Father Christ form \"He Image image for into the visible makea the faithful. But God God hiddenness. divine God under. may light inaccessible.\" God lifo cult which the Church Kingdom head work God requires hough suggest that with should the eyes the speech both forth Jesus dissimilarity \"The being Him God, This itself. Aquinas confirmed, nonsense Theologica ad the other hand, preaching than Christ short \"what natural naturalisti image saint, the impossible. And, historical does sake these always own\'  May be an image of text that says \'the fresh Abraham, This law typological significance BenBo figurea tho fiery wall concentration applics must should devoted Saviour (e.g. particular This God thoso events Altar, our place the which Parousin, the King-Shepherd, their present reality \"signs such whose Kyrios). parl their fullest imager precisely they private that other. whins churel informed fragmentation God who priest complete giving today, absolute transcends every That the the utterly other, remain only therefore being claim God beauty from proclamation truth. artistic beauty harmonious sweetness rather tend style. gratifics burst Sentimental trash, lying outside the field altogether, beauty repose which this world\'s seeking laughing.\'  +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | ACTIVITY NO. | TITLE/TOPIC | DATE DUE | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | MT-A | EVOLUTION OF CHURCH | Submission of MT | | | ARCHITECTURE | Notebook | | | | | | | | (TBA) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | MT-B | SYMBOLS IN CHRISTIAN | Submission of MT | | | CHURCHES | Notebook | | | | | | | | (TBA) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | INSTRUCTIONS: | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 1. Outputs for MT-A | | | | and MT-B are hard | | | | copies in 8 ½" X | | | | 11". Outputs | | | | shall be | | | | presented through | | | | manual | | | | presentation, or | | | | encoded/computeri | | | | zed | | | | or a combination | | | | of both. Outputs | | | | can also be a | | | | direct | | | | photocopies from | | | | credible | | | | source/s. | | | | | | | | 2. Insert your MT-A | | | | and MT-B outputs | | | | in your Notebook | | | | right after this | | | | page. | | | | | | | | [IMPORTANT:]{.underli | | | | ne} | | | | | | | | - Always bring your | | | | Notebook during | | | | lecture classes. | | | | | | | | - You can insert | | | | more reading | | | | materials from | | | | other sources | | | | through your | | | | independent | | | | reading and | | | | learning. | | | | | | | | - Cite your | | | | sources. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE** **ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER** - SIMPLICITY IN DESIGN - COARSENESS IN EXECUTION - Highly-influenced by Roman art and architecture - This architecture hardly has the architectural value of a style, simply because it was never really produced by the solution of constructive problems - Construction was highly influenced by Roman art and architecture; the purpose of the Christian church was to serve worshippers **INFLUENCES** **GEOGRAPHICAL** - The birth of Christianity near the eastern part of the Roman Empire - The vast Roman Empire spanning from the main lands of Italy, Greece extending up to England & France in the north, as well as encircled around the Mediterranean Sea confronting with Asia Minor & North Africa was subject to dismantling due to lack of central - The vast empire was divided into Western & Eastern empires. - The rich western province centered around Rome was obviously the target for invaders who destroyed the city. These confrontations - Due to this fact the WP faced discontinuation of construction tradition & caused overall deterioration in building skills. - On the contrary, the eastern province which accepted the migrated population was provided with continuation of Roman structural techniques. - The western empire was centered around Rome while the Eastern empire flourished around Constantinople (currently, Istanbul), which was strategically located on trade route by sea -- connecting Asia & North Africa by Europe. - Christianity was born in Judea -- a place in eastern province of the Roman empire, which spread towards the north & west even against the backdrop of great opposition & ultimately accepted as state religion. - The formulation phase of Christianity & its architecture can be considered from Constantine period (300 AD) to Charlemagne (800 AD -- French ruler). - The development of Christian Architecture thus can be divided into the following phases:  **GEOLOGICAL** - Roman ruins served as quarries from which materials were obtained - may be said to have acted indirectly on Early Christian architecture for the ruins of roman building often provided the quarry where obtained. This influenced the style, both as regards construction and decoration. Columns and other architectural features, as well as fine sculptures and mosaics from older building, were incorporated into basilican churches of the new faith. **CLIMATIC** - The climatic condition of Roman provinces where Christianity was established naturally modified the style. The fiercer sun and hot climate necessitated small windows and other and other eastern features. - North Italy has the CLIMATE of the temperate region of Europe. Center Italy is genial and sunny. Southern Italy is almost tropical. This variety of climatic condition is sufficient to account for diversity of architectural features and treatment in the peninsula itself. The **RELIGIOUS** - Christianity - The spread of Christianity has inspired buildings in this period. - Christianity was born in Judea -- a place in eastern province of the Roman empire, which spread towards the north & west even against the backdrop of great opposition & ultimately accepted as state religion. - Christianity, the religion developed by followers of Jesus Christ, began as a reforming sect of Judaism. - Over three centuries after the death of Christ, the religion Over three centuries after the death of Christ, the religion developed into an organized church with a hierarchy of bishops and clergy. - The earliest expression of its beliefs is found in the Nicene. The earliest expression of its beliefs is found in the Nicene Creed (325 CE), still used by the Eastern Orthodox Church, Creed (325 CE), still used by the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and some Protestant denominations. - Not until the emperor Constantine proclaimed toleration for all religions of the Roman Empire in the Edict of Milan in all religions of the Roman Empire in the Edict of Milan in 313 did Christians have authority to construct buildings for public worship - Christian architecture after 313 derived from Roman precedent. **SOCIAL** - Constantine changed the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium in A.D. 324, when the old Roman political system came to an end, and reigned as an absolute monarch till his death in A.D. 337. - Christianity suffered disabilities upon the division of the Roman Empire which first took place in A.D. 365 when Valentinian became Emperor of the West and his brother Valens of the East. A statue of a person\'s head Description automatically generated **HISTORICAL** - In 63 BC, the Romans conquered Judea in the Eastern Mediterranean - Main inhabitants were the Jews - Jews believed that one day the "Messiah" or "Christ" would free them from the Romans - In 27 AD, Jesus began preaching to people in Galilee, north of Judea - After three years, he was arrested by the Jews and found guilty of offending their god - He was nailed to a cross and died a painful death - He appeared to his disciples after his resurrection from the dead - Belief that Jesus was the Christ and the Son of God. - Christianity was born - Disciples spread stories of Jesus' life and teaching by word of mouth and by written account in the New Testament - Moved from Judea to Antioch in Syria and into the Northern Mediterranean - Founded new communities along the way - Carried by St. Peter, St. Paul and other missionaries to Rome, the center of the Empire and fountainhead of power and influence - Emperor Nero ordered Christians to be fed to wild beasts or burned to death - Despite this, in 4th century Rome, Christianity grew - In 312 AD, Constantine, a converted Christian, named it the official religion of the Roman empire - By 600 AD, most roman villages had their own churches, governed by a bishop - Patriarchs based in Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople and Rome **CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES** ***DESCRIPTION*** - Highly-influenced by Roman art and architecture - This architecture hardly has the architectural value of a style, simply because it was never really produced by the solution of constructive problems ***BUILDING TYPES*** - Early Christian Basilica -- Rectangular building with an apse for the altar at one end. - Martyrium -- Circular building (Baptistery or mausoleum) ***MATERIALS:*** made use as much as possible the materials from old Roman temples which had become useless ***PLANS:*** - The Early Christians followed the basilican model for their new churches. - May also have used old Roman halls, baths, dwelling-houses, and even pagan temples as places of worship - An isolated circular church, used as a baptistery was generally attached to the chief Basilica or Cathedral. ***WALLS:*** - These were still constructed according to Roman methods of using rubble or concrete, faced with plaster, brick or stone. - Mosaic decoration was added internally, and sometimes also externally on west facades. - Little regard was paid to external architectural effect.  ***OPENINGS:*** - Arcades, doors, and windows were spanned by a semicircular arch - Doors, windows, and niches were generally spanned by a semicircular arch, the use of the lintel being dispensed with. - The window openings were small those to the nave being in the clerestory high in the nave wall above the aisle roof. A blue and white drawing of a window Description automatically generated ***ROOF AND CEILING:*** simple timber roof of king and queen post trusses; vaulted or domed - Timber roofs covered the central nave, and only simple forms of construction, such as king and queen post trusses, were employed - The narrower side aisles were occasionally vaulted, and the Apse was usually domed and lined with beautiful glass mosaics, which formed a fitting background to the sanctuary; - These rocks were celled in some ornamental manner, the decoration of a visible framework.  ***COLUMNS:*** - Differ both in design and size, often taken from earlier Roman buildings. It was natural that early Christian builders should use materials and ornament of the pagan Romans. - Used Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, or Composite from Ancient Roman buildings. - The carved capitals are in acanthus leaf forms. ***MOULDINGS:*** - These are coarse variations of Roman types, and the carving is of the rudest kind, though rich in general effect. - The technique of the craftsman gradually declined, and was at a low ebb during this period. - Enrichments incised upon mouldings were in low relief, and the acanthus ornamentation, although still copied from the antique, became more conventional in form.  ***FLOORS:*** - The pavements of colored marbles in geometric patterns added much to the rich effect of the interiors. - These pavements were formed largely of slices from the old Roman porphyry columns, which were worked into designs by connecting bands of geometrical inlay on a field of white marble. ***ORNAMENTATION:*** - The introduction of color gave richness and glimmering mystery to interiors. - The mosaics which were the principal form of interior ornament, lined the domed apses generally represented Christ surrounded by apostles and saints with all those symbolic emblems usually made of glass. - The figures are treated in strong colors on a gold background. A black and white image of different architectural designs Description automatically generated - The design is bold and simple. - The method of execution is coarse and large, and no attempt was made at neatness of joint or regularity of bedding. - The interiors are by the aid of these mosaics, rendered exceedingly impressive. - Fresco painting usually in figure forms. - Did not use bulky Roman construction methods; an architectural abstraction of the ideal Christian, simple and plain on the outside, but with a soul glowing and beautiful within. (richly decorated interior space and neglecting the exterior) **EXAMPLES** ***BASILICAN CHURCHES:*** based on ancient Roman basilicas; erected over the burial place of the saint to whom it was dedicated. - *Roman basilicas as models* - *Usually erected over the burial place of the saint to whom it was dedicated* - *Unlike Greek and Roman temples which sheltered gods, the purpose of the Christian church was to shelter worshippers* - *Came in a complex, with cathedral, belfry or campanile, and baptistery* - *Fine sculptures and mosaics worked into new basilicas* - *Paid little regard to external architectural effect* - *Entrance at west* - *Priest stood behind altar, facing east*  *Source:* A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE by Francis D.K. Ching **Basilican Plan - Focused on the horizontal axis** ***Why the basilican form?*** *1.Suitability and needs virtually no modification - its profile, shape was fitting and close to the symbolism of the Temple of Solomon* *2.Had only few undesirable connotations from its previous use - being a judiciary building, it did not have a lot of negative history (as compared to an amphitheater)* *3.Could be built rapidly and at a relatively low cost - due to its simple rectangular configuration, it cud be easily replicated in new construction; also due to the materials involved (wooden roof truss, concrete walls, stone)* ***Commonest form of the early church.*** - *Unlike the earlier Roman phase, the interiors were given more importance than exterior.* - *Rectangular hall, timber-roofed with coffers & richly glided ceiling (hiding the roof truss) on nave.* - *Usually with one or two aisles to each side of the central nave separated by rows of rustic marble columns, sometimes carrying flat entablatures & sometimes, rows of arches. The width of aisles was half that of the central nave.* - *Apse at one end facing the principal entrances at the other end.* - *Bema / Transept -- a raised platform where altar was placed & from where the clergy officiated.* - *A courtyard (atrium) having a central fountain for ablutions & surrounded by* ***Parts of the Basilican Churches*** ***Atrium** -- open colonnaded court in front of and attached to a Christian Basilica* ***Narthex** -- a porch or vestibule of a church, generally colonnaded or arcaded and preceding the nave* ***Nave** -- part of the church between the chief entrance and the choir, demarcated from aisles, by piers and columns* ***Ambulatory** -- a passageway around the apse of a church, or for circumambulating a shrine* ***Apse** -- a vaulted semi-circular or polygonal termination, usually to a chancel or chapel* ***Bema** -- raised stage for the clergy at the east end* ***Aisle** -- part of the church, parallel to, and divided by piers or columns from, the nave, choir or transept* ***Choir** -- part of the church where the choir sits; normally the west part of the chancel (loosely applied to mean as chancel)* ***Chancel** - that part of the east end of a church in which the main altar is placed; reserved for clergy and choir* ***Ambo** -- where the Gospel and epistle was read* ***Transept** - part of a cruciform church whose axis crosses at right angles the axis running from the chief entrance through the nave to the apse.* A diagram of a building Description automatically generated **ATRIUM**   **Parts of an Early Christian Basilica** *Source:* EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE by Architect Ketki S Darp ***Centralized Plan - Focused on vertical axis; often called as the martyria*** ***Two possible prototypes:*** *1.Circular temples (e.g. Temple of Vesta ?)* *2.Centralized audience hall (e.g. Temple of Minerva) -They varied from circular to lobed set within an octagon or square; focus is on center & on a vertical axis (unlike basilica, its based on a horizontal axis)*  ***BAPTISTERIES*** - *Used only for sacrament of baptism, on festivals of Easter, Pentecost and Epiphany* - *Large separate building from church, sometimes adjoined atrium* A close-up of a stone archway Description automatically generated ***TOMBS or CATACOMBS*** - *Christians objected to cremation, insisted on burial on consecrated ground* - *Land for burials had become scarce and expensive* - *Monumental tombs became expressions of faith in immortality* - *Cemeteries or catacombs were excavated below ground* - *Several stories extending downwards* - *Usually domed and enriched with lavish mosaic decorations* - *Walls and ceilings were lavishly decorated with paintings mixing pagan symbolism with scenes from the Bible*  **READING MATERIALS** A diagram of a building Description automatically generated  A diagram of a building Description automatically generated *Source:* GRAPHIC HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE by John Mansbridge **Early Christian Architecture was characterized by its simplicity and functionalism, with an emphasis on creating spaces for worship and reflection. Despite its humble origins, it went on to greatly influence the development of later Christian architectural styles, including Romanesque and Gothic Architecture.** *Source:* Early Christian Architecture in Archi-Monarch.com **BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE** **850 BC to 476 AD** **ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER** - SIMPLICITY (exteriors) - RICHNESS (interiors) - After Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire to Byzantium (now called Istanbul) in 330 AD, Roman architecture evolved into a graceful, classically-inspired style that used brick instead of stone, domed roofs, elaborate mosaics, and classical forms. - It is characterized by large pendentive-supported domes, round arches & elaborate columns, richness in decorative elements, & color. - Focus on church construction. - The term Byzantine architecture is used to describe the architecture of the empire, and sometimes also to describe the buildings built in the western empire but within the same style. - The style continued to thrive in Constantinople until it fell under the hands of the Ottomans in 1453 A. D., and became the capital of their empire. - Byzantine architecture is characterized by masonry construction, round arches and shallow domes carried on pendentive (a triangular curved overhanging surface to support a circular dome over a square or polygonal compartment). - An important characteristic of the Byzantine style of ornamentation is the absence of sculptured figures, while colored pictures are generally flat and stylized. Extensive use of frescoes, and colored glass mosaics are used to cover whole interiors. - It has a circular or polygonal centralized type of plan, having the dome over the nave for churches, tombs and baptisteries with the façade facing west. - The east end of the church is cut off from the nave by an **iconostas** (screen of pictures). There is also an absence of campanile and atrium in their churches - Types of Dome **INFLUENCES** **GEOGRAPHICAL** - Byzantine Empire stood on seven (7) hills that gave it a commanding and central position for government. - Where Asia and Europe meet, separated by small body of water; most commanding position and most valuable part of eastern Roman Empire. - Constantine, the first Christian emperor, moved the capital of the Roman Empire to a new city called Constantinople (now Istanbul) which he founded on the site of the ancient Greek city Byzantion. **GEOLOGICAL** - clay bricks & concrete rubbles from the Roman buildings were mainly used as materials - marbles were shipped - Constantine possessed no good building stone, and local materials such as clay and rubble for concrete were employed. Other materials more monumental in character such as marble had to be imported. - Where Asia and Europe meet, separated by a narrow strip of water - Art and architecture executed by original Greek craftsmen - Influence reached Greece, Serbia, Russia, Asia Minor,North Africa, further west - Also Ravenna, Perigeux and Venice, through trade **CLIMATIC** - Climate was hot so small windows & openings were used -- flat roofs combined with domes & open courtyards with surrounding arcades were predominant. - The climate was hotter than Rome, which added to the oriental character of the architecture of the place. **RELIGIOUS** - Semi-tropical climate thus using flat roofs combined with domes. They also used small windows and arcades with open courts - With Byzantine as the new capital of the Roman Empire, new churches were built for the Christians - The "iconoclastic movement" banned the use of statues as a decoration, thus, painting became as substitute. This is seen on the dome ceilings of the buildings. - Churches for the new religion, as time went on, came under the influence of their environment and so the basilican Early Christian type of church was merged in the domical Byzantine type which had originated farther east. The Iconoclastic Movement by the Eastern Emperor Leo III forbade the use of statues, either in human or in animal form, as a means of representation for worship. This made painting figures in decoration as a substitute. **SOCIAL & POLITICAL** - prominent movers of this archt: - - - THEODOSIUS II built several military gates and towers for defense against the Visigoths and Huns but was penetrated by the Moslem and Islamic wave. - JUSTINIAN is responsible for building the Hagia Sophia or the Church of Saint Wisdom. He also published the Digest, an 800, 000 word condensation of the 1528 Latin law book **HISTORICAL** - The architecture of the Byzantine of Eastern Roman Empire which developed from Early Christian & Late Roman antecedents in the 4th century, flourished principally in Greece, but spread widely and lasted thru-out the Middle Ages until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). - Influenced by the massive character of Babylonian Architecture -- mostly incorporated the dome construction from the romans - Byzantium (Constantinople) became the new capital in 324 A.D. - The location of Constantinople (Istanbul) is the finest in Europe. - It sits on the strait of Marmara, one of the very strategic locations. - The separation of the Roman empire accompanied a separation in religion, with the separation of the Christian church. - The difference in belief and rituals between the eastern and western church led to some differences in architecture also. - At the time of the emperor Justinian (527-565 A.D.), Italy became under the rule of the Byzantine empire. - Constantinople stood on the site of an old Greek town called Byzantium (present-day Istanbul) - Known as the \"new Rome\", most commanding position and most valuable part of eastern Roman empire - Bulwark of Christianity during the Middle Ages - Strongly Christian people - founded many monasteries and churches - Converted the Russians and Eastern Europeans to Christianity - this form of Christianity survives today as the Eastern Orthodox Church - Under Emperor Justinian, regained control of lost lands of the Western Roman Empire, such as Northwest Africa, Italy and Spain - Attacks from Slav Barbarians and Bulgars from the northwest were constantly being repelled - Persians, Arabs and Muslims from east - Normans and Venetians - Ottoman Turks captured the city in 1453 and killed Constantine XI the last emperor - Fierce barbaric tribes such as the Goths and Vandals attacked from outside the empire - In 285 -- 293 AD, the empire had split into two -- an Eastern and Western empire - Constantine, a converted Christian, changed the capital of the Empire from Rome to Constantinople in 330 AD **CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES** - *CENTRALIZED PLAN; GREEK CROSS* - *MASSIVE DOMES WITH PENDENTIVES* - *SMALL DOMES AROUND A CENTRAL DOME* - *EXTENSIVE USE OF MOSAIC DECORATIONS* ***DESCRIPTION*** - *First buildings constructed were churches* - *Dumped Early Christian style for new domical Byzantine style* - *Byzantine is still official style for Orthodox church distinction:* - *Basilican plan - Early Christian* - *Domed, centralized plan - Byzantine* - *The most important feature that would control the form of this style is the development of the (dome architecture).* - *This led to adopting central shapes, like circular or octagonal plans.* - *They developed (Pendentives ) as vaulting system.* - *The structural elements were usually built with a marble shell, and filled with brick (close to the Roman concrete technique).* - *The mosaic for interior is considered the best in history.* - *The traders moved the style to cities far from the empire's influence, such as S. Mark and Venice* - *The dome of the Byzantine architecture is an eastern influence.* - *A pendentive: is a curved triangle of vaulting. It was the technique used to transform the square plan to the circular dome.* - *With the help of the pendentives, the Byzantine architects were able to build domes over square plans, while the Romans built them on circular plans.* - *Windows were opened in the lower part of the dome.* - *In later periods a drum was used under the dome.* - *The usage of brick architecture in domes became a main character of the Byzantine Architecture.* - *One of the remarkable features is the grouping of several small domes around a central large dome.* - *They changed the classical orders; there were several variations of them.* - *The arches were still semi-circular.* - *The brick architecture was in accordance with the interior mosaic.* ***CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM*** - Fusion of domical construction with classical columnar style - Domes of various types placed over square compartments using pendentives - Semi-circular arches rest directly on columns, with capitals able to support springing of arches ***DOMES*** - The dome was the prevailing motif of Byzantine architecture - Practice of using domes contrasts with Early Christian timber truss system 3 types of dome: - Simple - Pendentives and domes are of same sphere - Compound \-- Dome of separate sphere, rises independently over sphere of pendentives or dome raised on high drum - Special designs: melon, serrated, onion or bulbous shape *CHURCHES* - *Centralized type of plan* - *Dome over nave, sometimes supported by semi-domes* - *Entrance at west* **EXAMPLES** ***NOTABLE STRUCTURES*** - ***HAGIA SOPHIA @ CONSTANTINOPLE*** *ARCHITECT : Isidorus of Miletus Anthemius of Tralles* - ***ST. MARK'S BASILICA @ VENICE*** *ARCHITECT : Domenico I Contarini* ***HAGIA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE*** - *The Hagia Sophia is a historic place of worship in Istanbul, Turkey, in Eastern Europe.* - *It has many names: "Ayasofya" in Turkish, "Sancta Sophia" in Latin, and "Holy Wisdom" or "Divine Wisdom" in English.* - *Hagia Sophia \"divine or holy wisdom\"* - *Built by Justinian, designed by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus* - *Rose on the site of 2 successive Basilican churches of the same name* - *Most important church in Constantinople* - *Perfection of Byzantine style* - *Later converted into a mosque* - *The most important building in Byzantine architecture.* - *It was built by Justinian in the 6th century.* - *The dome is 32 m in diameter and 54 m high, standing on four massive piers.* - *The church has two stories, the upper galleries are for women* - *The two semi-domes act as buttresses for the central dome.* - *The great four piers are of stone, the rest of the building is brickwork.* - *The columns used in the building are of different sources, materials and colors.* - *The current structure was built in the sixth century as an Orthodox Christian Church for the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium. Today, the Hagia Sophia is one of the most-visited sites in Turkey, in the Sultanahmet neighborhood in the Fatih district. It is across the street from the Blue Mosque and next to the Topkapı Palace and the Basilica Cistern.* - - - - - *Source:* Hagia Sophia Architecture Guide: A History of the Hagia Sophia Written by MasterClass  **READING MATERIALS**   *Source:* GRAPHIC HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE by John Mansbridge **Byzantine Architecture stands as a testament to human creativity, ingenuity, and spiritual devotion. Through its iconic domes, masterful pendentives, and mesmerizing mosaics, Byzantine architects created spaces that transcended the physical realm, inspiring awe and reverence in all who beheld them. As we marvel at the beauty of Byzantine Architecture, let us also recognize its enduring legacy, which continues to shape the world of architecture and inspire future generations of builders and dreamers. From the majestic domes of Hagia Sophia to the intricate mosaics of Ravenna, Byzantine Architecture remains a beacon of artistic achievement and spiritual enlightenment. It reminds of the power of architecture to uplift the human spirit and connect us to the divine. of** *Source:* Byzantine Architecture: Dome, Pendentives, and Mosaics Written by Team Kaarwan