Serway Physics for Scientists, 7th Ed. PDF

Pedagogical Color Chart Mechanics Displacement and Linear (p) and position vectors angular (L) momentum vectors Linear (v) and angular (v) Torque vectors ( t ) velocity v...

Pedagogical Color Chart Mechanics Displacement and Linear (p) and position vectors angular (L) momentum vectors Linear (v) and angular (v) Torque vectors ( t ) velocity vectors Velocity component vectors Linear or rotational motion directions Force vectors (F) Force component vectors Springs Acceleration vectors (a) Pulleys Acceleration component vectors Electricity and Magnetism Electric fields Capacitors Magnetic fields Inductors (coils) Positive charges + Voltmeters V Negative charges – Ammeters A Resistors AC Sources Batteries and other DC power supplies – + Ground symbol Switches Current Light and Optics Light rays Objects Lenses and prisms Images Mirrors Some Physical Constants Quantity Symbol Valuea Atomic mass unit u 1.660 538 86 (28) ⫻ 10⫺27 kg 931.494 043 (80) MeV/c 2 Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 141 5 (10) ⫻ 1023 particles/mol eប Bohr magneton mB ⫽ 9.274 009 49 (80) ⫻ 10⫺24 J/T 2m e ប2 Bohr radius a0 ⫽ 5.291 772 108 (18) ⫻ 10⫺11 m me e 2ke R Boltzmann’s constant kB ⫽ 1.380 650 5 (24) ⫻ 10⫺23 J/K NA h Compton wavelength lC ⫽ 2.426 310 238 (16) ⫻ 10⫺12 m mec 1 Coulomb constant ke ⫽ 8.987 551 788... ⫻ 109 N ⭈m2/C2 (exact) 4pP0 Deuteron mass md 3.343 583 35 (57) ⫻ 10⫺27 kg 2.013 553 212 70 (35) u Electron mass me 9.109 382 6 (16) ⫻ 10⫺31 kg 5.485 799 094 5 (24) ⫻ 10⫺4 u 0.510 998 918 (44) MeV/c 2 Electron volt eV 1.602 176 53 (14) ⫻ 10⫺19 J Elementary charge e 1.602 176 53 (14) ⫻ 10⫺19 C Gas constant R 8.314 472 (15) J/mol ⭈ K Gravitational constant G 6.674 2 (10) ⫻ 10⫺11 N ⭈m2/kg2 2e Josephson frequency –voltage ratio 4.835 978 79 (41) ⫻ 1014 Hz/V h h Magnetic flux quantum ⌽0 ⫽ 2.067 833 72 (18) ⫻ 10⫺15 T ⭈m2 2e Neutron mass mn 1.674 927 28 (29) ⫻ 10⫺27 kg 1.008 664 915 60 (55) u 939.565 360 (81) MeV/c 2 eប Nuclear magneton mn ⫽ 5.050 783 43 (43) ⫻ 10⫺27 J/T 2m p Permeability of free space m0 4p ⫻ 10⫺7 T ⭈m/A (exact) 1 Permittivity of free space P0 ⫽ 8.854 187 817... ⫻ 10⫺12 C2/N ⭈m2 (exact) m 0c 2 Planck’s constant h 6.626 069 3 (11) ⫻ 10⫺34 J ⭈s h ប⫽ 1.054 571 68 (18) ⫻ 10⫺34 J ⭈s 2p Proton mass mp 1.672 621 71 (29) ⫻ 10⫺27 kg 1.007 276 466 88 (13) u 938.272 029 (80) MeV/c 2 Rydberg constant RH 1.097 373 156 852 5 (73) ⫻ 107 m⫺1 Speed of light in vacuum c 2.997 924 58 ⫻ 108 m/s (exact) Note: These constants are the values recommended in 2002 by CODATA, based on a least-squares adjustment of data from different measure- ments. For a more complete list, see P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor, “CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2002.” Rev. Mod. Phys. 77:1, 2005. a The numbers in parentheses for the values represent the uncertainties of the last two digits. Solar System Data Mean Radius Distance from Body Mass (kg) (m) Period (s) the Sun (m) Mercury 3.18 ⫻ 1023 2.43 ⫻ 106 7.60 ⫻ 106 5.79 ⫻ 1010 Venus 4.88 ⫻ 1024 6.06 ⫻ 106 1.94 ⫻ 107 1.08 ⫻ 1011 Earth 5.98 ⫻ 1024 6.37 ⫻ 106 3.156 ⫻ 107 1.496 ⫻ 1011 Mars 6.42 ⫻ 1023 3.37 ⫻ 106 5.94 ⫻ 107 2.28 ⫻ 1011 Jupiter 1.90 ⫻ 1027 6.99 ⫻ 107 3.74 ⫻ 108 7.78 ⫻ 1011 Saturn 5.68 ⫻ 1026 5.85 ⫻ 107 9.35 ⫻ 108 1.43 ⫻ 1012 Uranus 8.68 ⫻ 1025 2.33 ⫻ 107 2.64 ⫻ 109 2.87 ⫻ 1012 Neptune 1.03 ⫻ 1026 2.21 ⫻ 107 5.22 ⫻ 109 4.50 ⫻ 1012 Plutoa ⬇1.4 ⫻ 1022 ⬇1.5 ⫻ 106 7.82 ⫻ 109 5.91 ⫻ 1012 Moon 7.36 ⫻ 1022 1.74 ⫻ 106 — — Sun 1.991 ⫻ 1030 6.96 ⫻ 108 — — aIn August 2006, the International Astronomical Union adopted a definition of a planet that separates Pluto from the other eight planets. Pluto is now defined as a “dwarf planet” (like the asteroid Ceres). Physical Data Often Used Average Earth–Moon distance 3.84 ⫻ 108 m Average Earth–Sun distance 1.496 ⫻ 1011 m Average radius of the Earth 6.37 ⫻ 106 m Density of air (20°C and 1 atm) 1.20 kg/m3 Density of water (20°C and 1 atm) 1.00 ⫻ 103 kg/m3 Free-fall acceleration 9.80 m/s2 Mass of the Earth 5.98 ⫻ 1024 kg Mass of the Moon 7.36 ⫻ 1022 kg Mass of the Sun 1.99 ⫻ 1030 kg Standard atmospheric pressure 1.013 ⫻ 105 Pa Note: These values are the ones used in the text. Some Prefixes for Powers of Ten Power Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation 10⫺24 yocto y 101 deka da 10⫺21 zepto z 102 hecto h 10⫺18 atto a 103 kilo k 10⫺15 femto f 106 mega M 10⫺12 pico p 109 giga G 10⫺9 nano n 1012 tera T 10⫺6 micro m 1015 peta P 10⫺3 milli m 1018 exa E 10⫺2 centi c 1021 zetta Z 10⫺1 deci d 1024 yotta Y This page intentionally left blank PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics Seventh Edition Raymond A. Serway Emeritus, James Madison University John W. Jewett, Jr. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Australia Brazil Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States  Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, Seventh Edition Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett, Jr. Physics Acquisition Editor: Chris Hall Permissions Editors: Joohee Lee, Bob Kauser Publisher: David Harris Production Service: Lachina Publishing Services Vice President, Editor-in-Chief, Sciences: Michelle Julet Text Designer: Patrick Devine Design Development Editor: Ed Dodd Photo Researcher: Jane Sanders Miller Assistant Editor: Brandi Kirksey Copy Editor: Kathleen Lafferty Editorial Assistant: Shawn Vasquez Illustrator: Rolin Graphics, Progressive Information Technology Project Manager: Sam Subity Technologies, Lachina Publishing Services Marketing Manager: Mark Santee Cover Designer: Patrick Devine Design Marketing Assistant: Melissa Wong Cover Image: Front: © 2005 Tony Dunn; Back: © 2005 Kurt Managing Marketing Communications Manager: Bryan Vann Hoffmann, Abra Marketing Project Manager, Editorial Production: Teri Hyde Cover Printer: R.R. Donnelley/Willard Creative Director: Rob Hugel Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services Art Director: Lee Friedman Printer: R.R. Donnelley/Willard Print Buyers: Barbara Britton, Karen Hunt Copyright © 2008, 2004, 2000, 1996, 1990, 1986, 1982 by Thomson Higher Education Raymond A. Serway. Thomson, the Star logo, and Brooks/Cole 10 Davis Drive are trademarks used herein under license. Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including For more information about our products, contact us at: photocopying, recording, taping, web distribution, Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other (+1) 1-800-423-0563 manner—without the written permission of the publisher. For permission to use material from this text or product, Printed in the United States of America submit a request online at 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11 10 09 08 07 http://www.thomsonrights.com. Any additional questions about permissions can be ExamView® and ExamView Pro® are registered trademarks of submitted by e-mail to [email protected]. FSCreations, Inc. Windows is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation used herein under license. Macintosh and Power Macintosh are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc. Used herein under license. © 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Thomson Learning WebTutorTM is a trademark of Thomson Learning, Inc. Library of Congress Control Number: 2006936870 Student Edition: ISBN-13: 978-0-495-11245-7 ISBN-10: 0-495-11245-3  We dedicate this book to our wives Elizabeth and Lisa and all our children and grandchildren for their loving understanding when we spent time on writing instead of being with them. This page intentionally left blank  Brief Contents Part 1 MECHANICS 1 1 Physics and Measurement 2 2 Motion in One Dimension 19 3 Vectors 53 4 Motion in Two Dimensions 71 John W. Jewett, Jr. 5 The Laws of Motion 100 6 Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newton’s Laws 137 7 Energy of a System 163 8 Conservation of Energy 195 9 Linear Momentum and Collisions 227 10 Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis 269 11 Angular Momentum 311 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity 337 13 Universal Gravitation 362 14 Fluid Mechanics 389 Part 2 OSCILLATIONS AND MECHANICAL WAVES 417 15 Oscillatory Motion 418 16 Wave Motion 449 17 Sound Waves 474 18 Superposition and Standing Waves 500 Courtesy of NASA Part 3 THERMODYNAMICS 531 19 Temperature 532 20 The First Law of Thermodynamics 553 21 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 587 22 Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 612 Part 4 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 641 23 Electric Fields 642 24 Gauss’s Law 673 25 Electric Potential 692 26 Capacitance and Dielectrics 722 vii viii Brief Contents 27 Current and Resistance 752 28 Direct Current Circuits 775 © Thomson Learning/Charles D. Winters 29 Magnetic Fields 808 30 Sources of the Magnetic Field 837 31 Faraday’s Law 867 32 Inductance 897 33 Alternating Current Circuits 923 34 Electromagnetic Waves 952 Part 5 LIGHT AND OPTICS 977 35 The Nature of Light and the Laws of Geometric Optics 978 36 Image Formation 1008 Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman 37 Interference of Light Waves 1051 38 Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 1077 Part 6 MODERN PHYSICS 1111 39 Relativity 1112 40 Introduction to Quantum Physics 1153 41 Quantum Mechanics 1186 42 Atomic Physics 1215 43 Molecules and Solids 1257 44 Nuclear Structure 1293 45 Applications of Nuclear Physics 1329 46 Particle Physics and Cosmology 1357 Appendices A-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-25 Index I-1  Contents About the Authors xv Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion 100 5.1 The Concept of Force 100 Preface xvii 5.2 Newton’s First Law and Inertial Frames 102 5.3 Mass 103 To the Student xxix 5.4 Newton’s Second Law 104 5.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight 106 5.6 Newton’s Third Law 107 PART 1 MECHANICS 1 5.7 Some Applications of Newton’s Laws 109 5.8 Forces of Friction 119 Chapter 1 Physics and Measurement 2 Chapter 6 Circular Motion and Other 1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time 3 1.2 Matter and Model Building 6 Applications of Newton’s Laws 137 1.3 Dimensional Analysis 7 6.1 Newton’s Second Law for a Particle in Uniform 1.4 Conversion of Units 10 Circular Motion 137 1.5 Estimates and Order-of-Magnitude 6.2 Nonuniform Circular Motion 143 Calculations 11 6.3 Motion in Accelerated Frames 145 1.6 Significant Figures 12 6.4 Motion in the Presence of Resistive Forces 148 Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension 19 Chapter 7 Energy of a System 163 2.1 Position, Velocity, and Speed 20 7.1 Systems and Environments 164 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 23 7.2 Work Done by a Constant Force 164 2.3 Analysis Models: The Particle Under Constant 7.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors 167 Velocity 26 7.4 Work Done by a Varying Force 169 2.4 Acceleration 27 7.5 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Kinetic Energy 2.5 Motion Diagrams 31 Theorem 174 2.6 The Particle Under Constant Acceleration 32 7.6 Potential Energy of a System 177 2.7 Freely Falling Objects 36 7.7 Conservative and Nonconservative 2.8 Kinematic Equations Derived from Calculus 39 Forces 181 General Problem-Solving Strategy 42 7.8 Relationship Between Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 183 Chapter 3 Vectors 53 7.9 Energy Diagrams and Equilibrium of a System 185 3.1 Coordinate Systems 53 3.2 Vector and Scalar Quantities 55 3.3 Some Properties of Vectors 55 Chapter 8 Conservation of Energy 195 3.4 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors 59 8.1 The Nonisolated System: Conservation of Energy 196 Chapter 4 Motion in Two Dimensions 71 8.2 The Isolated System 198 8.3 Situations Involving Kinetic Friction 204 4.1 The Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 8.4 Changes in Mechanical Energy for Vectors 71 Nonconservative Forces 209 4.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant 8.5 Power 213 Acceleration 74 4.3 Projectile Motion 77 4.4 The Particle in Uniform Circular Motion 84 Chapter 9 Linear Momentum and 4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration 86 Collisions 227 4.6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration 87 9.1 Linear Momentum and Its Conservation 228 9.2 Impulse and Momentum 232 9.3 Collisions in One Dimension 234 9.4 Collisions in Two Dimensions 242 9.5 The Center of Mass 245 9.6 Motion of a System of Particles 250 9.7 Deformable Systems 253 © Thomson Learning/Charles D. Winters 9.8 Rocket Propulsion 255 Chapter 10 Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis 269 10.1 Angular Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 269 10.2 Rotational Kinematics: The Rigid Object Under Constant Angular Acceleration 272 ix x Contents 10.3 Angular and Translational Quantities 273 Chapter 14 Fluid Mechanics 389 10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy 276 14.1 Pressure 390 10.5 Calculation of Moments of Inertia 278 14.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth 391 10.6 Torque 282 14.3 Pressure Measurements 395 10.7 The Rigid Object Under a Net Torque 283 14.4 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’s Principle 395 10.8 Energy Considerations in Rotational 14.5 Fluid Dynamics 399 Motion 287 14.6 Bernoulli’s Equation 402 10.9 Rolling Motion of a Rigid Object 291 14.7 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics 405 Chapter 11 Angular Momentum 311 11.1 The Vector Product and Torque 311 11.2 Angular Momentum: The Nonisolated PART 2 OSCILLATIONS AND System 314 MECHANICAL WAVES 417 11.3 Angular Momentum of a Rotating Rigid Object 318 Chapter 15 Oscillatory Motion 418 11.4 The Isolated System: Conservation of Angular 15.1 Motion of an Object Attached to a Spring 419 Momentum 321 15.2 The Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion 420 11.5 The Motion of Gyroscopes and Tops 326 15.3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator 426 15.4 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium and Uniform Circular Motion 429 Elasticity 337 15.5 The Pendulum 432 12.1 The Rigid Object in Equilibrium 337 15.6 Damped Oscillations 436 12.2 More on the Center of Gravity 340 15.7 Forced Oscillations 437 12.3 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium 341 Chapter 16 Wave Motion 449 12.4 Elastic Properties of Solids 347 16.1 Propagation of a Disturbance 450 16.2 The Traveling Wave Model 454 Chapter 13 Universal Gravitation 362 16.3 The Speed of Waves on Strings 458 13.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 363 16.4 Reflection and Transmission 461 13.2 Free-Fall Acceleration and the Gravitational 16.5 Rate of Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Force 365 Strings 463 13.3 Kepler’s Laws and the Motion of Planets 367 16.6 The Linear Wave Equation 465 13.4 The Gravitational Field 372 13.5 Gravitational Potential Energy 373 Chapter 17 Sound Waves 474 13.6 Energy Considerations in Planetary and Satellite 17.1 Speed of Sound Waves 475 Motion 375 17.2 Periodic Sound Waves 476 17.3 Intensity of Periodic Sound Waves 478 17.4 The Doppler Effect 483 17.5 Digital Sound Recording 488 17.6 Motion Picture Sound 491 Chapter 18 Superposition and Standing Waves 500 18.1 Superposition and Interference 501 18.2 Standing Waves 505 18.3 Standing Waves in a String Fixed at Both Ends 508 18.4 Resonance 512 18.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns 512 18.6 Standing Waves in Rods and Membranes 516 18.7 Beats: Interference in Time 516 18.8 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns 519 NASA PART 3 THERMODYNAMICS 531 Chapter 19 Temperature 532 19.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 532  Contents xi 19.2 Thermometers and the Celsius Temperature 22.5 Gasoline and Diesel Engines 622 Scale 534 22.6 Entropy 624 19.3 The Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer and 22.7 Entropy Changes in Irreversible Processes 627 the Absolute Temperature Scale 535 22.8 Entropy on a Microscopic Scale 629 19.4 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 537 19.5 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas 542 Chapter 20 The First Law of PART 4 ELECTRICITY AND Thermodynamics 553 MAGNETISM 641 20.1 Heat and Internal Energy 554 Chapter 23 Electric Fields 642 20.2 Specific Heat and Calorimetry 556 23.1 Properties of Electric Charges 642 20.3 Latent Heat 560 23.2 Charging Objects by Induction 644 20.4 Work and Heat in Thermodynamic 23.3 Coulomb’s Law 645 Processes 564 23.4 The Electric Field 651 20.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 566 23.5 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge 20.6 Some Applications of the First Law of Distribution 654 Thermodynamics 567 23.6 Electric Field Lines 659 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms 572 23.7 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field 661 Chapter 21 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 587 Chapter 24 Gauss’s Law 673 21.1 Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas 587 24.1 Electric Flux 673 21.2 Molar Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas 592 24.2 Gauss’s Law 676 21.3 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas 595 24.3 Application of Gauss’s Law to Various Charge 21.4 The Equipartition of Energy 597 Distributions 678 21.5 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 600 24.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium 682 Chapter 25 Electric Potential 692 Chapter 22 Heat Engines, Entropy, and 25.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference 692 the Second Law of 25.2 Potential Difference in a Uniform Thermodynamics 612 Electric Field 694 22.1 Heat Engines and the Second Law of 25.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due Thermodynamics 613 to Point Charges 697 22.2 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 615 25.4 Obtaining the Value of the Electric Field from 22.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 617 the Electric Potential 701 22.4 The Carnot Engine 618 25.5 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions 703 25.6 Electric Potential Due to a Charged Conductor 707 25.7 The Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment 709 25.8 Applications of Electrostatics 710 Chapter 26 Capacitance and Dielectrics 722 26.1 Definition of Capacitance 722 26.2 Calculating Capacitance 724 26.3 Combinations of Capacitors 727 26.4 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 731 26.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics 735 26.6 Electric Dipole in an Electric Field 738 26.7 An Atomic Description of Dielectrics 740 Chapter 27 Current and Resistance 752 27.1 Electric Current 752 27.2 Resistance 756 27.3 A Model for Electrical Conduction 760 27.4 Resistance and Temperature 762 27.5 Superconductors 762 © Thomson Learning/George Semple 27.6 Electrical Power 763 Chapter 28 Direct Current Circuits 775 28.1 Electromotive Force 775 28.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel 778 28.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules 785 28.4 RC Circuits 788 28.5 Electrical Meters 794 28.6 Household Wiring and Electrical Safety 796 xii Contents Chapter 29 Magnetic Fields 808 33.6 Power in an AC Circuit 935 29.1 Magnetic Fields and Forces 809 33.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit 937 29.2 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform 33.8 The Transformer and Power Transmission 939 Magnetic Field 813 33.9 Rectifiers and Filters 942 29.3 Applications Involving Charged Particles Chapter 34 Electromagnetic Waves 952 Moving in a Magnetic Field 816 34.1 Displacement Current and the General Form 29.4 Magnetic Force Acting on a Current-Carrying of Ampère’s Law 953 Conductor 819 34.2 Maxwell’s Equations and Hertz’s 29.5 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Discoveries 955 Magnetic Field 821 34.3 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 957 29.6 The Hall Effect 825 34.4 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 961 Chapter 30 Sources of the Magnetic Field 837 34.5 Momentum and Radiation Pressure 963 30.1 The Biot–Savart Law 837 34.6 Production of Electromagnetic Waves 30.2 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel by an Antenna 965 Conductors 842 34.7 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 966 30.3 Ampère’s Law 844 30.4 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 848 30.5 Gauss’s Law in Magnetism 850 PART 5 LIGHT AND OPTICS 977 30.6 Magnetism in Matter 852 30.7 The Magnetic Field of the Earth 855 Chapter 35 The Nature of Light and the Laws of Geometric Optics 978 Chapter 31 Faraday’s Law 867 35.1 The Nature of Light 978 31.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction 867 35.2 Measurements of the Speed of Light 979 31.2 Motional emf 871 35.3 The Ray Approximation in Geometric 31.3 Lenz’s Law 876 Optics 981 31.4 Induced emf and Electric Fields 878 35.4 The Wave Under Reflection 981 31.5 Generators and Motors 880 35.5 The Wave Under Refraction 985 31.6 Eddy Currents 884 35.6 Huygens’s Principle 990 Chapter 32 Inductance 897 35.7 Dispersion 992 32.1 Self-Induction and Inductance 897 35.8 Total Internal Reflection 993 32.2 RL Circuits 900 Chapter 36 Image Formation 1008 32.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field 903 36.1 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors 1008 32.4 Mutual Inductance 906 36.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors 1010 32.5 Oscillations in an LC Circuit 907 36.3 Images Formed by Refraction 1017 32.6 The RLC Circuit 911 36.4 Thin Lenses 1021 Chapter 33 Alternating Current Circuits 923 36.5 Lens Aberrations 1030 33.1 AC Sources 923 36.6 The Camera 1031 33.2 Resistors in an AC Circuit 924 36.7 The Eye 1033 33.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit 927 36.8 The Simple Magnifier 1035 33.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit 929 36.9 The Compound Microscope 1037 33.5 The RLC Series Circuit 932 36.10 The Telescope 1038 Chapter 37 Interference of Light Waves 1051 37.1 Conditions for Interference 1051 37.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 1052 37.3 Light Waves in Interference 1054 37.4 Intensity Distribution of the Double-Slit Interference Pattern 1056 37.5 Change of Phase Due to Reflection 1059 37.6 Interference in Thin Films 1060 37.7 The Michelson Interferometer 1064 Chapter 38 Diffraction Patterns and © Thomson Learning/Charles D. Winters Polarization 1077 38.1 Introduction to Diffraction Patterns 1077 38.2 Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits 1078 38.3 Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures 1083 38.4 The Diffraction Grating 1086 38.5 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals 1091 38.6 Polarization of Light Waves 1093  Contents xiii PART 6 MODERN PHYSICS 1111 42.5 The Wave Functions for Hydrogen 1227 42.6 Physical Interpretation of the Quantum Chapter 39 Relativity 1112 Numbers 1230 39.1 The Principle of Galilean Relativity 1113 42.7 The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic 39.2 The Michelson–Morley Experiment 1116 Table 1237 39.3 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity 1118 42.8 More on Atomic Spectra: Visible 39.4 Consequences of the Special Theory of and X-Ray 1241 Relativity 1119 42.9 Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions 1244 39.5 The Lorentz Transformation Equations 1130 42.10 Lasers 1245 39.6 The Lorentz Velocity Transformation Equations 1131 Chapter 43 Molecules and Solids 1257 39.7 Relativistic Linear Momentum 1134 43.1 Molecular Bonds 1258 39.8 Relativistic Energy 1135 43.2 Energy States and Spectra of Molecules 1261 39.9 Mass and Energy 1139 43.3 Bonding in Solids 1268 39.10 The General Theory of Relativity 1140 43.4 Free-Electron Theory of Metals 1270 43.5 Band Theory of Solids 1274 Chapter 40 Introduction to Quantum Physics 1153 43.6 Electrical Conduction in Metals, Insulators, and 40.1 Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Semiconductors 1276 Hypothesis 1154 43.7 Semiconductor Devices 1279 40.2 The Photoelectric Effect 1160 43.8 Superconductivity 1283 40.3 The Compton Effect 1165 40.4 Photons and Electromagnetic Waves 1167 Chapter 44 Nuclear Structure 1293 40.5 The Wave Properties of Particles 1168 44.1 Some Properties of Nuclei 1294 40.6 The Quantum Particle 1171 44.2 Nuclear Binding Energy 1299 40.7 The Double-Slit Experiment Revisited 1174 44.3 Nuclear Models 1300 40.8 The Uncertainty Principle 1175 44.4 Radioactivity 1304 44.5 The Decay Processes 1308 Chapter 41 Quantum Mechanics 1186 44.6 Natural Radioactivity 1317 41.1 An Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics 1186 44.7 Nuclear Reactions 1318 41.2 The Quantum Particle Under Boundary 44.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Magnetic Conditions 1191 Resonance Imaging 1319 41.3 The Schrödinger Equation 1196 41.4 A Particle in a Well of Finite Height 1198 Chapter 45 Applications of Nuclear Physics 1329 41.5 Tunneling Through a Potential Energy 45.1 Interactions Involving Neutrons 1329 Barrier 1200 45.2 Nuclear Fission 1330 41.6 Applications of Tunneling 1202 45.3 Nuclear Reactors 1332 41.7 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 1205 45.4 Nuclear Fusion 1335 45.5 Radiation Damage 1342 Chapter 42 Atomic Physics 1215 45.6 Radiation Detectors 1344 42.1 Atomic Spectra of Gases 1216 45.7 Uses of Radiation 1347 42.2 Early Models of the Atom 1218 42.3 Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom 1219 Chapter 46 Particle Physics and Cosmology 1357 42.4 The Quantum Model of the Hydrogen 46.1 The Fundamental Forces in Nature 1358 Atom 1224 46.2 Positrons and Other Antiparticles 1358 46.3 Mesons and the Beginning of Particle Physics 1361 46.4 Classification of Particles 1363 46.5 Conservation Laws 1365 46.6 Strange Particles and Strangeness 1369 46.7 Finding Patterns in the Particles 1370 46.8 Quarks 1372 46.9 Multicolored Quarks 1375 © Thomson Learning/Charles D. Winters 46.10 The Standard Model 1377 46.11 The Cosmic Connection 1378 46.12 Problems and Perspectives 1383 Appendix A Tables A-1 Table A.1 Conversion Factors A-1 Table A.2 Symbols, Dimensions, and Units of Physical Quantities A-2 xiv Contents Appendix B Mathematics Review A-4 Appendix D SI Units A-24 B.1 Scientific Notation A-4 D.1 SI Units A-24 B.2 Algebra A-5 D.2 Some Derived SI Units A-24 B.3 Geometry A-9 B.4 Trigonometry A-10 Answers to Odd-Numbered B.5 Series Expansions A-12 Problems A-25 B.6 Differential Calculus A-13 B.7 Integral Calculus A-16 Index I-1 B.8 Propagation of Uncertainty A-20 Appendix C Periodic Table of the Elements A-22  About the Authors Raymond A. Serway received his doctorate at Illinois Institute of Technology and is Professor Emeritus at James Madison University. In 1990, he received the Madi- son Scholar Award at James Madison University, where he taught for 17 years. Dr. Ser- way began his teaching career at Clarkson University, where he conducted research and taught from 1967 to 1980. He was the recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award at Clarkson University in 1977 and of the Alumni Achievement Award from Utica College in 1985. As Guest Scientist at the IBM Research Laboratory in Zurich, Switzerland, he worked with K. Alex Müller, 1987 Nobel Prize recipient. Dr. Serway also was a visiting scientist at Argonne National Laboratory, where he collaborated with his mentor and friend, Sam Marshall. In addition to earlier editions of this textbook, Dr. Serway is the coauthor of Principles of Physics, fourth edition; College Physics, seventh edi- tion; Essentials of College Physics; and Modern Physics, third edition. He also is the coauthor of the high school textbook Physics, published by Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. In addi- tion, Dr. Serway has published more than 40 research papers in the field of condensed matter physics and has given more than 70 presentations at professional meetings. Dr. Serway and his wife, Elizabeth, enjoy traveling, golf, singing in a church choir, and spending quality time with their four children and eight grandchildren. John W. Jewett, Jr., earned his doctorate at Ohio State University, specializing in optical and magnetic properties of condensed matter. Dr. Jewett began his academic career at Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, where he taught from 1974 to 1984. He is currently Professor of Physics at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. Throughout his teaching career, Dr. Jewett has been active in promoting science edu- cation. In addition to receiving four National Science Foundation grants, he helped found and direct the Southern California Area Modern Physics Institute. He also directed Science IMPACT (Institute for Modern Pedagogy and Creative Teaching), which works with teachers and schools to develop effective science curricula. Dr. Jew- ett’s honors include the Stockton Merit Award at Richard Stockton College in 1980, the Outstanding Professor Award at California State Polytechnic University for 1991–1992, and the Excellence in Undergraduate Physics Teaching Award from the American Association of Physics Teachers in 1998. He has given more than 80 presen- tations at professional meetings, including presentations at international conferences in China and Japan. In addition to his work on this textbook, he is coauthor of Princi- ples of Physics, fourth edition, with Dr. Serway and author of The World of Physics... Mys- teries, Magic, and Myth. Dr. Jewett enjoys playing keyboard with his all-physicist band, traveling, and collecting antiques that can be used as demonstration apparatus in physics lectures. Most importantly, he relishes spending time with his wife, Lisa, and their children and grandchildren. xv This page intentionally left blank  Preface In writing this seventh edition of Physics for Scientists and Engineers, we continue our ongoing efforts to improve the clarity of presentation and include new pedagogical features that help support the learning and teaching processes. Drawing on positive feedback from users of the sixth edition and reviewers’ suggestions, we have refined the text to better meet the needs of students and teachers. This textbook is intended for a course in introductory physics for students majoring in science or engineering. The entire contents of the book in its extended version could be covered in a three-semester course, but it is possible to use the material in shorter sequences with the omission of selected chapters and sections. The mathemati- cal background of the student taking this course should ideally include one semester of calculus. If that is not possible, the student should be enrolled in a concurrent course in introductory calculus. Objectives This introductory physics textbook has two main objectives: to provide the student with a clear and logical presentation of the basic concepts and principles of physics and to strengthen an understanding of the concepts and principles through a broad range of interesting applications to the real world. To meet these objectives, we have placed emphasis on sound physical arguments and problem-solving methodology. At the same time, we have attempted to motivate the student through practical examples that demonstrate the role of physics in other disciplines, including engineering, chemistry, and medicine. Changes in the Seventh Edition A large number of changes and improvements have been made in preparing the seventh edition of this text. Some of the new features are based on our experiences and on cur- rent trends in science education. Other changes have been incorporated in response to comments and suggestions offered by users of the sixth edition and by reviewers of the manuscript. The features listed here represent the major changes in the seventh edition. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS A substantial revision to the end-of-chapter questions and problems was made in an effort to improve their variety, interest, and pedagogical value, while maintaining their clarity and quality. Approximately 23% of the questions and problems are new or substantially changed. Several of the questions for each chap- ter are in objective format. Several problems in each chapter explicitly ask for qualita- tive reasoning in some parts as well as for quantitative answers in other parts: 19. 䢇 Assume a parcel of air in a straight tube moves with a constant acceleration of 4.00 m/s2 and has a velocity of 13.0 m/s at 10:05:00 a.m. on a certain date. (a) What is its velocity at 10:05:01 a.m.? (b) At 10:05:02 a.m.? (c) At © Thomson Learning/ Charles D. Winters 10:05:02.5 a.m.? (d) At 10:05:04 a.m.? (e) At 10:04:59 a.m.? (f) Describe the shape of a graph of velocity versus time for this parcel of air. (g) Argue for or against the statement, “Knowing the single value of an object’s con- stant acceleration is like knowing a whole list of values for its velocity.” WORKED EXAMPLES All in-text worked examples have been recast and are now pre- sented in a two-column format to better reinforce physical concepts. The left column shows textual information that describes the steps for solving the problem. The right column shows the mathematical manipulations and results of taking these steps. This layout facilitates matching the concept with its mathematical execution and helps students organize their work. These reconstituted examples closely follow a General Problem-Solving Strategy introduced in Chapter 2 to reinforce effective problem- solving habits. A sample of a worked example can be found on the next page. xvii xviii Preface EXAMPLE 3.2 A Vacation Trip Each solution has been reconstituted to more A car travels 20.0 km due north and then 35.0 km in y (km) y (km) closely follow the General a direction 60.0° west of north as shown in Figure N Problem-Solving Strategy as 3.11a. Find the magnitude and direction of the car’s 40 40 B W E resultant displacement. outlined in Chapter 2, to 60.0 R S A reinforce good problem- SOLUTION 20 20 solving habits. R u S S b A B b Conceptualize The vectors A and B drawn in Figure 3.11a help us conceptualize the problem. 20 0 x (km) 20 0 x (km) Categorize We can categorize this example as a sim- (a) (b) ple analysis problem in vector addition. The displace- S Figure 3.11 (Example 3.2) (a) Graphical method for finding the resul- ment R is the resultant when the two individual dis- tant displacement S S S vector R  A  B. (b)S Adding the vectors in reverse order 1B  A 2 gives the same result for R. S S placements A and B are added. We can further S S categorize it as a problem about the analysis of trian- gles, so we appeal to our expertise in geometry and trigonometry. Analyze In this example, we show two ways to analyze the problem of finding the resultant of two vectors. The first Each step of the solution is S way is to solve the problem geometrically, using graph paper and a protractor to measure the magnitude of R and its detailed in a two-column direction in Figure 3.11a. (In fact, even when you know you are going to be carrying out a calculation, you should format. The left column sketch the vectors to check your results.) With an ordinary ruler and protractor, a large diagram typically gives provides an explanation for answers to two-digit but not to three-digit precision. S each mathematical step in The second way to solve the problem is to analyze it algebraically. The magnitude of R can be obtained from the the right column, to better law of cosines as applied to the triangle (see Appendix B.4). reinforce the physical concepts. Use R 2  A2  B 2  2AB cos u from the R  2A 2  B 2  2AB cos u law of cosines to find R: Substitute numerical values, noting that R  2 120.0 km2 2  135.0 km2 2  2 120.0 km2 135.0 km2 cos 120° u  180°  60°  120°:  48.2 km sin b sin u Use the law of sines (Appendix B.4) to  S B R find the direction of R measured from the northerly direction: B 35.0 km sin b  sin u  sin 120°  0.629 R 48.2 km b  38.9° The resultant displacement of the car is 48.2 km in a direction 38.9° west of north. Finalize Does the angle b that we calculated agree people find using the laws of cosines and sines to be with an estimate made by looking at Figure 3.11a or awkward. Second, a triangle only results if you are with an actual angle measured from the diagram using adding two vectors. If you are adding three or more vec- the graphical method? Is it reasonableS that the magni- tors, the resulting geometric shape is usually not a trian- S S tude of R is larger than that of both A and B ? Are the gle. In Section 3.4, we explore a new method of adding S units of R correct? vectors that will address both of these disadvantages. Although the graphical method of adding vectors works well, it suffers from two disadvantages. First, some What If? Suppose the trip were taken with the two vectors in reverse order: 35.0 km at 60.0° west of north first and then 20.0 km due north. How would the magnitude and the direction of the resultant vector change? Answer They would not change. The commutative law for vector addition tells us that the order of vectors in an addition is irrelevant. Graphically, Figure 3.11b shows that the vectors added in the reverse order give us the same resultant vector. What If? statements appear in about 1/3 of the worked examples and offer a variation on the situation posed in the text of the example. For instance, this feature might explore the effects of changing the conditions of the situation, All worked examples are also available to be determine what happens when a quantity is assigned as interactive examples in the Enhanced taken to a particular limiting value, or question WebAssign homework management system (visit whether additional information can be www.pse7.com for more details). determined about the problem situation. This feature encourages students to think about the results of the example and assists in conceptual understanding of the principles.  Preface xix ONLINE HOMEWORK It is now easier to assign online homework with Serway and Jew- ett and Enhanced WebAssign. All worked examples, end-of-chapter problems, active figures, quick quizzes, and most questions are available in WebAssign. Most problems include hints and feedback to provide instantaneous reinforcement or direction for that problem. In addition to the text content, we have also added math remediation tools to help students get up to speed in algebra, trigonometry, and calculus. SUMMARIES Each chapter contains a summary that reviews the important concepts and equations discussed in that chapter. A marginal note next to each chapter sum- mary directs students to additional quizzes, animations, and interactive exercises for that chapter on the book’s companion Web site. The format of the end-of-chapter sum- © Thomson Learning/Charles D. Winters mary has been completely revised for this edition. The summary is divided into three sections: Definitions, Concepts and Principles, and Analysis Models for Problem- Solving. In each section, flashcard-type boxes focus on each separate definition, con- cept, principle, or analysis model. MATH APPENDIX The math appendix, a valuable tool for students, has been updated to show the math tools in a physics context. This resource is ideal for students who need a quick review on topics such as algebra, trigonometry, and calculus. CONTENT CHANGES The content and organization of the textbook are essentially the same as in the sixth edition. Many sections in various chapters have been streamlined, deleted, or combined with other sections to allow for a more balanced presentation. Vec- S tors are now denoted in boldface with an arrow over them (for example, v), making them easier to recognize. Chapters 7 and 8 have been completely reorganized to prepare students for a unified approach to energy that is used throughout the text. A new section in Chapter 9 teaches students how to analyze deformable systems with the conservation of energy equation and the impulse-momentum theorem. Chapter 34 is longer than in the sixth edition because of the movement into that chapter of the material on displace- ment current from Chapter 30 and Maxwell’s equations from Chapter 31. A more detailed list of content changes can be found on the instructor’s companion Web site. Content The material in this book covers fundamental topics in classical physics and provides an introduction to modern physics. The book is divided into six parts. Part 1 (Chapters 1 to 14) deals with the fundamentals of Newtonian mechanics and the physics of fluids; Part 2 (Chapters 15 to 18) covers oscillations, mechanical waves, and sound; Part 3 (Chapters 19 to 22) addresses heat and thermodynamics; Part 4 (Chapters 23 to 34) treats electricity and magnetism; Part 5 (Chapters 35 to 38) covers light and optics; and Part 6 (Chapters 39 to 46) deals with relativity and modern physics. Text Features Most instructors believe that the textbook selected for a course should be the student’s primary guide for understanding and learning the subject matter. Furthermore, the textbook should be easily accessible and should be styled and written to facilitate instruction and learning. With these points in mind, we have included many pedagogi- cal features, listed below, that are intended to enhance its usefulness to both students and instructors. Problem Solving and Conceptual Understanding GENERAL PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY A general strategy outlined at the end of Chap- ter 2 provides students with a structured process for solving problems. In all remaining chapters, the strategy is employed explicitly in every example so that students learn how it is applied. Students are encouraged to follow this strategy when working end-of- chapter problems. xx Preface MODELING Although students are faced with hundreds of problems during their physics courses, instructors realize that a relatively small number of physical situations form the basis of these problems. When faced with a new problem, a physicist forms a model of the problem that can be solved in a simple way by identifying the common physical situation that occurs in the problem. For example, many problems involve par- ticles under constant acceleration, isolated systems, or waves under refraction. Because the physicist has studied these situations extensively and understands the associated behavior, he or she can apply this knowledge as a model for solving a new problem. In certain chapters, this edition identifies Analysis Models, which are physical situations (such as the particle under constant acceleration, the isolated system, or the wave under refraction) that occur so often that they can be used as a model for solving an unfamiliar problem. These models are discussed in the chapter text, and the student is reminded of them in the end-of-chapter summary under the heading “Analysis Models for Problem-Solving.” PROBLEMS An extensive set of problems is included at the end of each chapter; in all, the text contains approximately three thousand problems. Answers to odd-numbered problems are provided at the end of the book. For the convenience of both the stu- dent and the instructor, about two-thirds of the problems are keyed to specific sections © Thomson Learning/George Semple of the chapter. The remaining problems, labeled “Additional Problems,” are not keyed to specific sections. The problem numbers for straightforward problems are printed in black, intermediate-level problems are in blue, and challenging problems are in magenta. “Not-just-a-number” problems Each chapter includes several marked problems that require students to think qualitatively in some parts and quantitatively in oth- ers. Instructors can assign such problems to guide students to display deeper understanding, practice good problem-solving techniques, and prepare for exams. Problems for developing symbolic reasoning Each chapter contains problems that ask for solutions in symbolic form as well as many problems asking for numerical answers. To help students develop skill in symbolic reasoning, each chapter contains a pair of otherwise identical problems, one asking for a numeri- cal solution and one asking for a symbolic derivation. In this edition, each chap- ter also contains a problem giving a numerical value for every datum but one so that the answer displays how the unknown depends on the datum represented symbolically. The answer to such a problem has the form of a function of one variable. Reasoning about the behavior of this function puts emphasis on the Finalize step of the General Problem-Solving Strategy. All problems developing symbolic reasoning are identified by a tan background screen: 53. 䢇 A light spring has an unstressed length of 15.5 cm. It is described by Hooke’s law with spring constant 4.30 N/m. One end of the horizontal spring is held on a fixed verti- cal axle, and the other end is attached to a puck of mass m that can move without friction over a horizontal surface. The puck is set into motion in a circle with a period of 1.30 s. (a) Find the extension of the spring x as it depends on m. Evaluate x for (b) m  0.070 0 kg, (c) m  0.140 kg, (d) m  0.180 kg, and (e) m  0.190 kg. (f) Describe the pattern of variation of x as it depends on m. Review problems Many chapters include review problems requiring the student to combine concepts covered in the chapter with those discussed in previous chapters. These problems reflect the cohesive nature of the principles in the text and verify that physics is not a scattered set of ideas. When facing a real-world issue such as global warming or nuclear weapons, it may be necessary to call on ideas in physics from several parts of a textbook such as this one. “Fermi problems” As in previous editions, at least one problem in each chapter asks the student to reason in order-of-magnitude terms.  Preface xxi Design problems Several chapters contain problems that ask the student to deter- mine design parameters for a practical device so that it can function as required. “Jeopardy! ” problems Some chapters give students practice in changing between different representations by stating equations and asking for a description of a situation to which they apply as well as for a numerical answer. Calculus-based problems Every chapter contains at least one problem applying ideas and methods from differential calculus and one problem using integral calculus. The instructor’s Web site, www.thomsonedu.com/physics/serway, provides lists of problems using calculus, problems encouraging or requiring computer use, problems with “What If?” parts, problems referred to in the chapter text, problems based on experimental data, order-of-magnitude problems, problems about biological applica- tions, design problems, Jeopardy! problems, review problems, problems reflecting histor- ical reasoning about confusing ideas, problems developing symbolic reasoning skill, problems with qualitative parts, ranking questions, and other objective questions. QUESTIONS The questions section at the end of each chapter has been significantly revised. Multiple-choice, ranking, and true–false questions have been added. The instructor may select items to assign as homework or use in the classroom, possibly with “peer instruction” methods and possibly with “clicker” systems. More than eight hundred questions are included in this edition. Answers to selected questions are included in the Student Solutions Manual/Study Guide, and answers to all questions are found in the Instructor’s Solutions Manual. 19. O (i) Rank the gravitational accelerations you would mea- sure for (a) a 2-kg object 5 cm above the floor, (b) a 2-kg object 120 cm above the floor, (c) a 3-kg object 120 cm above the floor, and (d) a 3-kg object 80 cm above the floor. List the one with the largest-magnitude acceleration first. If two are equal, show their equality in your list. (ii) Rank the gravitational forces on the same four objects, largest magnitude first. (iii) Rank the gravitational potential energies (of the object–Earth system) for the same four objects, largest first, taking y  0 at the floor. 23. O An ice cube has been given a push and slides without friction on a level table. Which is correct? (a) It is in sta- ble equilibrium. (b) It is in unstable equilibrium. (c) It is in neutral equilibrium (d) It is not in equilibrium. WORKED EXAMPLES Two types of worked examples are presented to aid student com- prehension. All worked examples in the text may be assigned for homework in WebAssign. The first example type presents a problem and numerical answer. As discussed ear- lier, solutions to these examples have been altered in this edition to feature a two- column layout to explain the physical concepts and the mathematical steps side by side. Every example follows the explicit steps of the General Problem-Solving Strategy outlined in Chapter 2. The second type of example is conceptual in nature. To accommodate increased emphasis on understanding physical concepts, the many conceptual examples are labeled as such, set off in boxes, and designed to focus students on the physical situa- tion in the problem. WHAT IF? Approximately one-third of the worked examples in the text contain a What If? feature. At the completion of the example solution, a What If? question offers a vari- ation on the situation posed in the text of the example. For instance, this feature might explore the effects of changing the conditions of the situation, determine what happens when a quantity is taken to a particular limiting value, or question whether additional xxii Preface information can be determined about the situation. This feature encourages students to think about the results of the example, and it also assists in conceptual understanding of the principles. What If? questions also prepare students to encounter novel problems that may be included on exams. Some of the end-of-chapter problems also include this feature. QUICK QUIZZES Quick Quizzes provide students an opportunity to test their under- standing of the physical concepts presented. The questions require students to make decisions on the basis of sound reasoning, and some of the questions have been written to help students overcome common misconceptions. Quick Quizzes have been cast in an objective format, including multiple-choice, true–false, and ranking. Answers to all Quick Quiz questions are found at the end of each chapter. Additional Quick Quizzes that can be used in classroom teaching are available on the instructor’s companion Web site. Many instructors choose to use such questions in a “peer instruction” teaching style or with the use of personal response system “clickers,” but they can be used in standard quiz format as well. Quick Quizzes are set off from the text by horizontal lines: Quick Quiz 7.5 A dart is loaded into a spring-loaded toy dart gun by pushing the spring in by a distance x. For the next loading, the spring is compressed a dis- tance 2x. How much faster does the second dart leave the gun compared with the first? (a) four times as fast (b) two times as fast (c) the same (d) half as fast (e) one-fourth as fast PITFALL PREVENTION 16.2 PITFALL PREVENTIONS More than two hundred Pitfall Preventions (such as the one to Two Kinds of Speed/Velocity the left) are provided to help students avoid common mistakes and misunderstandings. These features, which are placed in the margins of the text, address both common stu- Do not confuse v, the speed of the wave as it propagates along dent misconceptions and situations in which students often follow unproductive paths. the string, with vy , the transverse velocity of a point on the string. The speed v is constant for a uni- Helpful Features form medium, whereas vy varies STYLE To facilitate rapid comprehension, we have written the book in a clear, logical, sinusoidally. and engaging style. We have chosen a writing style that is somewhat informal and relaxed so that students will find the text appealing and enjoyable to read. New terms are carefully defined, and we have avoided the use of jargon. IMPORTANT STATEMENTS AND EQUATIONS Most important statements and definitions are set in boldface or are highlighted with a background screen for added emphasis and ease of review. Similarly, important equations are highlighted with a background screen to facilitate location. MARGINAL NOTES Comments and notes appearing in the margin with a 䊳 icon can be used to locate important statements, equations, and concepts in the text. PEDAGOGICAL USE OF COLOR Readers should consult the pedagogical color chart (inside the front cover) for a listing of the color-coded symbols used in the text dia- grams. This system is followed consistently throughout the text. MATHEMATICAL LEVEL We have introduced calculus gradually, keeping in mind that students often take introductory courses in calculus and physics concurrently. Most steps are shown when basic equations are developed, and reference is often made to mathematical appendices near the end of the textbook. Vector products are intro- duced later in the text, where they are needed in physical applications. The dot prod- uct is introduced in Chapter 7, which addresses energy of a system; the cross product is introduced in Chapter 11, which deals with angular momentum. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Significant figures in both worked examples and end-of-chapter problems have been handled with care. Most numerical examples are worked to either two or three significant figures, depending on the precision of the data provided. End- of-chapter problems regularly state data and answers to three-digit precision.  Preface xxiii UNITS The international system of units (SI) is used throughout the text. The U.S. customary system of units is used only to a limited extent in the chapters on mechanics and thermodynamics. APPENDICES AND ENDPAPERS Several appendices are provided near the end of the textbook. Most of the appendix material represents a review of mathematical concepts and techniques used in the text, including scientific notation, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, differential calculus, and integral calculus. Reference to these appen- dices is made throughout the text. Most mathematical review sections in the appen- dices include worked examples an