Structure of English Lecture Notes Seen 792 PDF

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH LECTURE NOTES PROF. JONETH D. VIBAR I EVERY SATURDAY derivational Ex. Discourse SEEN...

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH LECTURE NOTES PROF. JONETH D. VIBAR I EVERY SATURDAY derivational Ex. Discourse SEEN 792 affixes, and d.) is Markers and social context monomorphemic WEEK 10: INTERJECTION Interjection 1. Formal Point of View Examples It is a word used, independently of all grammatical interjection is typically 1. Word that express emotion relation, to express feeling or to awaken attention or defined as a lexical form English yuk!, ugh!, and phew!, interest as: Ah! Hallo! Ha! that: German pfui!, Dakota xox!, Polish fu! and fe!, Russian fu!, Interjection (a) conventionally and Danish fy! constitutes a 1. O nonelliptical utterance by 2. Words and expressions for - The sign of address or wishing, and should always be itself, greetings, leave-taking, written as a single capital letter. (b)does not enter into thanking, apologizing, etc. Example: construction with other (English hello, thank you, and o “O pride of Greece! Ulysses, stay!” word classes, goodbye, French adieu) (c) does not take 2. Oh inflectional or 3. Swear words (English shit!, - Express a sorrow, pain, surprise, hope or longing and derivational affixes, and French merde! and sacredieu!); may begin either with a capital or a small letter (d) is monomorphemic Example: 4. Attention-getting signals o Oh, that my head were waters, and mine (English hey! and psst!, eyes a fountain of tears.” -Jer.9.1 Russian a’u, Japanese oi and nee) Characteristics of Interjection Interjections tend to be phonologically and 5. Some particles and morphologically anomalous. response words (English yes Psst! Shsss! Hmm! (do not contain vowel sounds = and no, Japanese hai and iie) “nonwords”) Morphologically, interjections do not normally take 6. Words directed at animals inflections or derivations “uninflected words”. (English whoa); Most interjections are simple monomorphemic words. (Yuk! Ew!) 7. Onomatopoeic words and Multimorphemic words or Complex interjections iconic (see Iconicity) depictives (Goddammit!) (Polish sza ‘hush’ and hu-hu Interjectional Phrases (English bloody hell, dear me! ‘boo’). Thank God! etc.) ‘Interjection’ may be used to described either a word class or an utterance 2. Semantic Point of Examples It has syntactic independence, paralinguistic; View accompaniment to language. Prototypical interjections 1. EMOTIVES interjections: may be defined as the speaker’s state with respect Interjection: Other Definitions conventionalized to the emotions and sensations Formal Point of Semantic Point Pragmatic linguistic signs that they have at the time View of View Criteria express a speaker’s (English Yuk! ‘I feel disgusted’; - interjection is - Prototypical Interjections are current mental state, Ouch! ‘I feel sudden pain’; ‘I typically defined interjections may context-bound attitude, or reaction feel shocked’) as a lexical form be defined as linguistic signs. toward a situation. that: conventionalized That is, they are 2. COGNITIVE interjections: linguistic signs ties to specific Ex: Expressive Words the state of knowledge and a.) conventionally that express a situations and thoughts of the speaker at the constitutes a speaker’s current index elements in time of utterance nonelliptical mental state, the extralinguistic (English Aha! ‘I now know this’; utterance by itself attitude, or context. They oh-oh! ‘I now know something b.) does not either reaction toward a cannot be fully bad can happen’) into construction situation. interpreted unless with other word they are situated classes Ex. Expressive in the appropriate 3. Pragmatic Criteria Example c.) does not take Words discourse. Interjections are context- 1. If someone utters the English inflectional or bound linguistic signs. OUCH!, he or she indexes LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 1  TRANS: That is, they are tied to himself or herself as specific situations and experiencing a sudden and WEEK 11: PUNCTUATION MARKS index elements in the sharp pain. Punctuation extralinguistic context. They cannot be fully Once the speaker is identified by Misleading Correct interpreted unless they inference, this utterance can be Let’s eat Grandpa! Let’s eat, Grandpa! are situated in the fully interpreted. I would like to thank my I would like to thank my appropriate discourse. parents, Tiffany and God. parents, Tiffany, and God. Abduction (The speaker) A woman, without her man, A woman: without her, man Ex: Discourse Markers Induction (The hearer) is nothing. is nothing. and social context. Deduction (Both speaker and hearer) Day old “bread” Day old bread I’m sorry I love you. I’m sorry; I love you. I love baking my family and I love baking, my family, and my friends my friends. Happy Holidays from the Happy Holidays from the Smith’s Smiths. Help!!!! Wanted!!!! Help Wanted! Example No Punctuation With Punctuation One day walking together up One day, walking together a hill I said to Friday do you up a hill, I said to Friday, "Do not wish yourself in your you not wish yourself in your own country again yes he own country again?" "Yes" said what would you do he said. "What would you do there said I would you turn there?" I said. "Would you wild and eat mens flesh turn wild and eat men's flesh again he looked full of again?" he looked full of concern and shaking his concern and shaking his head said no head said, "No" Importance of Punctuation Marks There is no doubt about punctuation marks importance. It has a great importance in writing; it facilitates the reading of a reader, and prevent confusion and overlap between the sentence and words, and if a good writer uses them, and put them in their right positions, they will help the reader to understand what is written. If the writer neglected these signs, used or abused and did not put them in their right positions, it will be difficult to read for the reader, and may lead to misunderstand what is written. Snooks (2002) states that marks of punctuation have a very important role in giving the intended meaning to the language. He adds that the use of the wrong placement of such marks can change the meaning of the sentence completely and sometimes even convert the sentence to complete nonsense. Punctuation Marks and its Usage 1.Comma (‚) 1.1. When a subordinate (less important) clause comes before the principal clause. o ex. If you do not go‚ help me. 1.2 To separate phrases in apposition (describing the same Person or thing mentioned earlier) from the rest of sentence. o ex. Mr. Brwon‚ the doctor‚ said that he travelled to Canada. 1.3 To separate items in the same list. o ex. She travelled to America ‚ Canada‚ and Australia. 2. Full Stop/ Period (.) 2.1 A full stop is used at the end of the sentence and the next sentence begins with a capital letter o ex. Ali felt tired. He went to bed. LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 2  TRANS: 2.2 An abbreviation ends in a full stop and with 9.1 Slash is used with fractions. acronyms. o ex. 1/2 = one-half 2/3 = two-third o ex. Etcetera→ etc. 9.2 Use a slash to separate the day, month, and a Mr. B.B.C. year in dates. o ex. He was born on 18/3/1987(Jane:2008). 3. Colon (:) 3.1 The use of a colon indicates that what follows is 10. Question mark (?) an explanation of what precedes it. 10.1 Use question mark at the end of any direct o ex. They have some news about the story: questions. John's father has arrived. o ex. What is your favorite country to visit? 3.2 It is also used to introduce a list of the items. 10.1 Use a question mark at the end of a tag question o ex. To travel, you need the following items: a (a statement followed by a short question). passport, a visa, an application and the o ex. You speak English, don't you? correct fee (Jane:2008) 4. Semi-Colon (;) 11. Hyphen (-) 4.1 A semi colon is used to join two independent but 11.1 A hyphen may separate, in some cases, the related clauses or sentences. prefix from the second part of words. o ex. She is a good writer; she has published o ex. co-opt, T-shirt. several books. 11.2 A hyphen may join some compound words. 4.2 It can also separate clauses of conjunctive o ex. twenty-one. (ibid) adverbs such as however, therefore, moreover... o ex. We shouldn't go to the fair; however, I do 12. Parentheses (( )) hear that they have good funnel cakes 12.1 Parentheses or brackets are often used to include extra or additional information into a sentence. 5. Quotation Marks (“ ”) o ex. The library (which was built in the 5.1 Quotation marks are used for material that is seventeenth century) needs to be repaired. quoted or emphasized. 12.2 Parentheses give additional, but non-essential o ex. Ali said, “I cannot finish my quiz.” information in a sentence. 5.2 Quotation marks are used to set off the title of o ex. France, America, and Spanish (but not short works of writing. Chinese) may be studied here.(Net:2) o ex. The television show, “Cheers” (Truss: 2003). 13.Square Brackets ( [ ] ) 13.1 Square brackets are used to clarification, to help 6. Apostrophe (‘) the reader understands the sentence. 6.1 An apostrophe is used to refer to possessive o ex. She drove 60 [mile per hour] on the singular or plural. highway to town. (Net: 3) o ex. The boy's books. (singular) e.g. The boys' books. (plural) 14. Dash (Em—Dash, En–Dash) 6.2 An apostrophe is used always to be included 1. Em—Dash - is used to indicate a when telling the time. break, often informally, or to o ex. It is eight o'clock. *short for: (eight of the add Parenthetical information. clock) o ex. They received a prize — 6.3 An apostrophe is used to show letters are missing and a certificate as well. in words (omission). o ex. You're→ You are e.g. I'm→ I am 2. En–Dash - is used to indicate a range. e.g.1939 (Truss:2003). 1945 7. Exclamation mark (!) WEEK 12: SENTENCE STRUCTURE 7.1 An exclamation mark is used to signal the Sentence expression of a strong emotions such as: a- A sentence is a combination of words so connected Excitement: as to express a complete thought. o ex. I can't wait! b-Panic: Ex/ Help me! 7.2 An exclamation mark is used to add an emphasis Phrase to the sentence. - merely indicates a though which does not completely o ex. There's a fly in my Soup. There's a fly in express my Soup! (Snooks:2002). Examples: o A story as old as time 8. Ellipsis (...) o To eat dinner 8.1 An ellipsis is used to show that the speaker has o At the corner of the house been cut off abruptly(interrupted). o An exceptionally good example o ex. ‘Whatever you do, don't...’ 8.2 An ellipsis is used to indicate a trailing off in Sentence speech or thought. - expressing a complete thought (subject + predicate) o ex. We could do this... or maybe that... Examples: o Iliad by Homer is a story as old as time. 9. Slash (/) LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 3  TRANS: o The hungry soldier was eager to eat Tom reads novels. dinner. Tom reads newspapers. o I saw the hammer at the corner of the Tom reads novels and newspapers. (compound direct house. object) o You gave an exceptionally good example. Tom reads and enjoys novels. ( compound verb) Tom and Harry read novels. (compound subject) Classes of Sentences Tom and Harry read and enjoy novels and 1. Declarative Sentence newspapers. (compound subject, verb, direct object) - affirms that something is or is not fact or possibility Examples: 2. COMPOUND SENTENCE The sun shines. consists of two simple sentences that are connected Achilles is the epic hero in the story. with a coordinating conjunction: FANBOYS (for, and, This is not my favorite book. nor, but, or, yet, so) o (2 independent clauses + for, and, nor, but, 2. Interrogative Sentence or, yet, so) - Asks whether something is or is not a fact. o A compound sentence can consist of a Examples: semicolon (;) Is this your home? Are your arguments valid? Examples: How did you validate the data? Global warming will continue to rise, and it will affect the world’s economy. 3. Imperative Sentence Hailstones fall to the ground, so the people need to - Commands of forbids something. be cautious. Examples: Some believe dogs have excellent visions, have Listen to the lecture. excellent visions, yet others believe dogs can see So not neglect your lessons. better peripherally. Observe proper paragraph alignment. 3. COMPLEX SENTENCE 4. Exclamatory Sentence is an independent clause connected to one or more - Expresses a thought as an exclamation as an dependent clauses using a subordinating conjunction exclamation. (despite, although) or a relative pronoun (who, which) Examples: 1 independent + conjunction + 1 independent clause. How brightly the sun shines! Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again! Examples: Although the government promised childhood What is Sentence Structure obesity, the 2020 target has not been met. Sentence structure is the way a sentence is The companies need to give back to the society, constructed grammatically. which is more important in the current economic issues. Independent Clause INDEPENDENT (main) clause is a complete 4. COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCE thought that can stand alone as a sentence. has two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Dependent Clause DEPENDENT (subordinate) clause is an incomplete Examples: thought that cannot stand alone as a sentence. While Tommy reads novels, Jack loves comics, but o Has a subordinating conjunction before the Sam reads only magazines. clause Due to the failed handling of the crisis, the Prime § after, although, as, because, Minister was forced to resign and a general election before, if, since, though, until, and was called. when Examples: MORE EXAMPLES: Global warming will continue to rise until methane emissions are halved. Hailstones fall to the ground when the current of rising air slows down. As soon as a bullet makes contact with the laminates used in bulletproof glass, its energy begins to dissipate. What are the Sentence Structures 1. SIMPLE SENTENCE expresses a single thought and must contain a subject and a verb. Examples: LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 4  TRANS: o Recycling is an effective way of helping the environment, and everyone should recycle at home. Complex: o Since recycling is an effective way of helping the environment, everyone should recycle at home. Compound-Complex: o Since recycling is an effective way of helping the environment, everyone should recycle at home; we can all work together to protect our planet. WEEK 12: SENTENCE FUNCTIONS To compare or contrast ideas What Are the Functional Purposes of each Type of Sentence? Compound: Because each type of sentence can serve various functions, o Van Gogh was a talented and successful artist, but he had intense personal issues. the writer should use the type of sentence that best communicates the purpose of his or her idea. Complex: o Although he was a talented and successful Choose the sentence type that will most clearly and artist, Van Gogh had intense personal issues. accurately convey the logic of your idea. Consider the amount of information your readers Compound-Complex: need and the links the readers need to process the o Although he was a talented and successful artist, Van Gogh had intense personal information. issues; indeed, many say his inner turmoil Vary sentence structures to pace your readers contributed to his beautiful art. through your argument. Functions of Simple Sentence To convey cause and effect or chain of events Use simple sentences when presenting a limited amount of Compound: information. Although simple sentences may be shorter, they o The researchers did not come to the correct are not any less academic than other sentence types. conclusion, so they restructured their hypothesis. To declare a direct statement Complex: First, I will give background information about my o Since the researchers did not come to the correct conclusion, they restructured their project. hypothesis. This conclusion is supported by extensive evidence. Compound-Complex: o Since the researchers did not come to the To display a simple list correct conclusion, they restructured their The researchers created their hypothesis, conducted hypothesis, and they will attempt the some tests, and drew their conclusions. experiment again. My evidence comes from journal articles, periodicals, and books. To elaborate on a claim or extend the reasoning Compound: To give concise directions o Cell phones should not be permitted in class, Please consider my application for the internship. for they distract students and teachers. Turn to Table 1 in the appendix. Complex: o Since cell phones distract students and To ask a question teachers, they should not be used in class. What is the true meaning of the poem? Compound-Complex: o Since cell phones distract students and What will this study mean to medical research in a teachers, they should not be used in class, decade? and I encourage faculty to forbid their use. Functions of Compound, Complex, and Exercises for Sentence Structures Compound-Complex Sentence 1. Pauline and Bruno have a big argument every summer over Compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences can where they should spend their summer vacation. serve similar purposes. The writer can tailor the amount of - Complex Sentence information he or she provides by adding independent and 2. Pauline loves to go to the beach and spend her days dependent clauses to simple sentences. sunbathing. - Simple Sentence To combine similar ideas 3. Bruno, on the other hand, like the view that he gets from the Compound: log cabin up in the mountains, and he enjoys hiking in the forest. LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 5  TRANS: - Compound-Complex Sentence Syntactic Structure 4. Pauline says there is nothing relaxing about chopping wood, Syntactic structure refers to the arrangement of swatting mosquitoes, and cooking over a woodstove. words and phrases in a sentence following - Simple Sentence grammatical rules and principles 5. Bruno dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty It governs the way components of a sentence are sunburn. organized and connected, ensuring that the - Compound Sentence sentence's meaning is clear and coherent 6. Bruno tends to get bored sitting on the beach, watching the waves getting sand in his swimsuit, and reading detective A. Declarative Sentence novels for a week. “She loves flowers.” - Simple Sentence o Subject: She 7. This year, after a lengthy, noisy debate, they decided to take o Verb: loves separate vacations. o Object: flowers - Complex Sentence 8. Bruno went to the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and B. Imperative Sentence Pauline went to Cape Cod. “Close the box.” - Compound Sentence o Verb: Close 9. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant o Subject: (implied "you") contact on the internet. o Object: the box - Complex Sentence 10. Bruno took the desktop computer that he uses at work, and C. Interrogative Sentence Pauline sits on the beach with her laptop computer, which she connects to the internet with a cellular phone. “Are you going to the party?” - Compound-Complex Sentence o Auxiliary verb: Are o Subject: you SENTENCE DIAGRAMMING o Main verb: going A sentence diagram is a visual organization system that you can use to see how the parts of speech like PHRASES nouns, verbs, prepositions, and articles work together. A phrase is a group or combination of two or more words. It is a unit within a complete sentence. By (Refer to your own assignments for the examples) itself, a phrase is not a complete sentence, as it does not relay a complete thought. It does not contain the SENTENCE COMPONENTS subject and the predicate both, so it is not a clause The different parts of a sentence are a subject, either. predicate, object, complement, and modifier. These different parts of a sentence can add variety to your Noun Phrase writing style—and depending on where you place each These are the phrases contain a noun + at least one part, they can change the meaning of your words. modifier associated to the noun. The modifier can prefix or suffix the noun. The entire phrase will act as a noun for that particular sentence. WEEK 13: SYNTAX The arrangement of words in the sentences, values, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. Prepositional Phrase Any phrase that consists of a preposition + object of the preposition, which will be a noun or a pronoun is what we call a prepositional phrase. Syntax received much attention after 1957, when the American linguist Noam Chomsky proposed a radically new theory of language, transformational grammar (TG) A system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among the various elements of a sentence. “deep structure” “surface structure” Adjective Phrase beneath every sentence in the mind of a speaker is A group of words that functions as an adjective to an invisible, inaudible deep structure describe a noun or pronoun (adjective + noun/pronoun) in a sentence LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 6  TRANS: CLAUSES Clauses are grammatical units that contain a subject and a verb. One way to differentiate them from phrases is to remember that they use a finite verb while phrases do not. It has two main types: o Independent Clauses o Dependent Clauses Independent Clause An independent clause is considered as a complete sentence that can stand on its own. It has a subject and a verb and is also known as the main clause. A full stop or period (.) is commonly used to end an Adverbial Phrase independent clause to make it a sentence. We use adverb phrases most commonly to modify verbs. Independent clauses have three characteristics: Subject o It answers the question of what the sentence is about. Action or predicate o It provides details on the subject’s action/s. Complete thought o The independent clause conveys an idea of what occurs in the sentence. Conjunctional Phrase A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the Examples: sentence to join clauses. I love the color purple. I studied in a private Catholic high school. Kathy was my very first best friend. Dependent Clause A dependent clause also contains a subject and a verb however it can not stand alone on its own. It can not be considered as a complete sentence for it does not impart a complete thought. A dependent clause is also sometimes called a subordinate clause. Dependent Clauses are Identified by a: I. MARKER WORD. Examples of this are after, although, because, before, even if, even though, though, while, and the likes. A. After I graduate from college... Interjectional Phrase II. CONJUNCTION. Examples of this are because, since, as, Interjections that have more than one word are called while, before, where, as, as if, than, whereas, and the likes. interjectional phrases. A....But I still love it CONDITIONALS What are Conditionals? Conditional sentences are a type of complex sentence. They’re made up of two parts: a condition (often introduced by if or unless) and a result. The order of these clauses doesn’t change the meaning Conditionals help us talk about different possibilities, situations, conditions and consequences. LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 7  TRANS: Examples: Examples: “If you study hard, you will pass your exams.” If you exceed the speed limit, you may receive a speeding ticket. “You will pass your exams if you study hard.” If you don’t finish your homework, you won’t be FIVE TYPES OF CONDITIONALS allowed to watch TV. ZERO CONDITIONALS UNREAL CONDITIONALS Zero conditionals are used to express general truths or habits, as well as known facts. Unreal conditionals describe situations that are not true, possible, or unlikely to happen. These are used in the second, third, and mixed conditionals. These Examples: conditionals express hypothetical, imagined, or If you don’t eat breakfast, you’ll get hungry later. counterfactual situations that are not part of the If you heat water, it boils. current reality. FIRST CONDITIONALS Examples: First conditionals are used to express future If she chose to study law instead, she could have possibilities or conditions. become a successful attorney. If I were a billionaire, I would fund research into Examples: finding the cure for cancer. If the flood gets any higher, we’ll have to evacuate. If the weather is nice today, we’ll go to the beach. WEEK 14: SENTENCE STRUCTURE TREE DIAGRAMMING SECOND CONDITIONALS Syntactic Structures Second conditionals are used to express Marianne Celce-Murcia & Diane Larsen-Freeman hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or the - The authors of the book “The Grammar Book” future. The Grammar Book Examples: - introduces teachers and future teachers to English grammatical constructions. This highly acclaimed text, If I were a bird, I would fly anywhere I wanted. used both as a course book and as a grammar If I had a million dollars, I would get a house in the reference guide, is suitable for all teachers of English. Bahamas Syntax THIRD CONDITIONALS is the arrangement of words in a sentence and the Third conditionals are used to express hypothetical grammatical rules that govern it. or impossible situations in the past. helps us understand how sentences work and the meaning behind word order, structure, and Examples: punctuation. Establishes the rules and patterns that dictate how we If you had told me earlier, I could have helped you. express ideas, questions, commands, and other forms If you had listened to your parents, then you wouldn’t of communication. have gotten grounded. Syntax received much attention after 1957, when the American linguist Noam Chomsky proposed a MIXED CONDITIONALS radically new theory of language, transformational Mixed conditionals combine elements of different grammar (TG) conditional types, typically the second and third A system of language analysis that recognizes the conditionals. They are used to express a hypothetical relationship among the various elements of a situation in the past with a present or future sentence. consequence. Mixed conditionals are most commonly “deep structure” “surface structure” unreal. beneath every sentence in the mind of a speaker is an invisible, inaudible deep structure Examples: If I had studied harder, I would be a doctor now. (Past hypothetical action, present result) If I were taller, I would have played basketball. (Present hypothetical situation, past result) DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONDITIONALS REAL CONDITIONAL Real conditionals refer to situations that are possible or likely to happen. These include the zero and first conditionals, where the condition is based on facts, habits, or likely outcomes. LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 8  TRANS: PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES 2. Structure of Modification 1. S – sm, S’ A grammatical structure that consists of a head and a SUBJ PRED modifier. 2. S’ (Sentence Core) SUBJ PRED Adjective + noun: Modifies beautiful glass 3. SUBJ = NP (Noun Phrase) a noun 4. NP = det, AP (Adj Phrase) Noun + noun: Modifies a paper towel N (-pl), PrepP, pro noun 5. AP = intens, ADJ, PrepP Verb + noun: Modifies a books placed in the box (ex. very small) noun 6. PrepP = Prep, NP Adverb + verb: Modifies a quickly leapt 7. PRED = AUX (T-sense) VP, verb Advl Verb + adjective: Modifies a fast run 8. Advl = Advl CL verb Advl P Qualifier + adjective: very dark PrepP Modifies an adjective 9. Advl CL = adv, sub, S Adverb + adjective: positively rude 10. Advl P = intens ADV Modifies an adjective (ex. Very quickly) Qualifier + adverb: Modifies extremely slow 11. PrepP = Prep, NP an adverb Adverb + adverb: Modifies too quickly 8. an adverb Article + noun: Modifies a the institution noun 3. Structure of Complementation A complete is a word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence. 1. Structure of Predication Predication is typically thought of as a (linguistic) semantic notion: the construction of a proposition from two components, a subject and a predicate 4. Structure of Coordination The process of combining two constituents (i.e. grammatical category) of the same type. LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 9  TRANS: The process of combining two constituents (i.e. clauses) of the same type. 5. Structure of Subordination 6. Structure of Negation Constructing negative rather than affirmative (positive) sentences. LEYRISH TAGUMPAY 10