Enlightenment and Revolution PDF

Module 12 Enlightenment and Revolution Essential Question In what ways were the ideas introduced by European scientists and thinkers between...

Module 12 Enlightenment and Revolution Essential Question In what ways were the ideas introduced by European scientists and thinkers between the 1500s and 1700s revolutionary? About the Map: This 1660 map drawn by In this module you will learn how Enlightenment scientists and thinkers Dutch-German cartographer Andreas Cellarius challenged old ideas in science, the arts, government, and religion. shows the solar system as described by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus’s concept of a heliocentric universe helped to What You Will Learn … set off the Scientific Revolution. Lesson 1: The Scientific Revolution..................... 480 The Big Idea In the mid-1500s, scientists began to question accepted beliefs and make new theories based on experimentation. Lesson 2: Enlightenment Thinkers..................... 488 Explore ONLINE! The Big Idea A revolution in intellectual activity changed Europeans’ VIDEOS, including... view of government and society. Isaac Newton: The Gravity of Genius Lesson 3: The Enlightenment Spreads................... 495 Lessons of the Revolution The Big Idea Enlightenment ideas spread through the Western world and profoundly influenced the arts and government. Lesson 4: The American Revolution.................... 504 Document-Based Investigations The Big Idea Enlightenment ideas helped spur the American colonies to shed British rule and create a new nation. Graphic Organizers Interactive Games Image with Hotspots: Enlightenment Thinking in Art Image with Text Slider: Enlightenment Ideas 478 Module 12 Timeline of Events 1500–1800 Explore ONLINE! Europe and North America Events World Events 1500 1543 Copernicus publishes heliocentric theory. 1556 Golden Age of Mughal Empire begins in India. (portrait of Mughal princess) 1587 Safavid leader Shah Abbas comes to the throne in Persia. 1603 Tokugawa Ieyasu becomes ruler in Japan. 1609 Galileo observes heavens through a telescope similar to this one. 1644 Manchus invade China and establish Qing Dynasty. (Qing ruler Lohan) 1687 Newton publishes treatise on law of gravity. 1690 Locke publishes treatise on government. 1699 Great Turkish War ends with Ottoman Empire giving up territory in Eastern Europe. 1722 Chinese emperor Kangxi dies after 61-year reign. 1776 With Liberty Bell symbolizing their freedom, American colonies declare independence. 1776 Tukolor Kingdom arises in the 1783 Treaty of Paris is signed, ending former Songhai region of West Africa. the American Revolution. 1789 Revolution erupts in France. 1800 Enlightenmentand Revolution 479  Lesson 1 The Scientific Revolution Setting the Stage The Big Idea The period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great In the mid-1500s, scientists change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning began to question accepted and the arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many beliefs and make new theories fields. Scholars began to question ideas that had been based on experimentation. accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious Why It Matters Now movement known as the Reformation prompted Such questioning led to the followers to challenge accepted ways of thinking about development of the scientific God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking method still in use today. place, another revolution in European thought had Key Terms and People begun, one that would permanently change how people geocentric theory viewed the physical world. Scientific Revolution heliocentric theory The Roots of Modern Science Galileo Galilei Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false scientific method by referring to an ancient Greek or Roman author or to the Isaac Newton deism Bible. Few European scholars challenged the scientific ideas of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully observing nature for themselves. The Medieval View During the Middle Ages, most scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe. According to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular paths around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view. After all, the sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it rose in the morning and set in the evening. This earth-centered view of the universe was called the geocentric theory. The idea came from Aristotle, a Greek phi- losopher from the fourth century BC. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (TOL a mee) expanded the theory in the second cen- tury AD. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliber- ately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life unfolded. 480 Module 12  A New Way of Thinking Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars published works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories, they launched a change in European thought that historians call the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful obser- vation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. A combination of discoveries and circumstances led to the Scientific Revolution and helped spread its impact. During the Crusades, Europe- ans came in contact with the Muslim world. They learned about many advancements in mathematics and science developed by Muslim scholars, such as Arabic numerals, algebra, astronomical charts, and human anat- omy. Then, during the Renaissance, European explorers traveled to Africa, Asia, and the Americas. They encountered peoples and animals previously unknown in Europe. These discoveries opened Europeans to the possibil- ity that there were new truths to be found. The invention of the printing press during this period helped spread challenging ideas—both old and new—more widely among Europe’s thinkers. The age of European exploration also fueled a great deal of scientific research, especially in astronomy and mathematics. Navigators needed Reading Check Analyze Effects better instruments and geographic measurements, for example, to deter- What impact did mine their location in the open sea. As scientists began to look more travel by Europeans closely at the world around them, they made observations that did not have on the launching of the Scientific match the ancient beliefs. They found they had reached the limit of the Revolution? classical world’s knowledge. Yet, they still needed to know more. A Revolutionary Model of the Universe An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy. It started when a small group of scholars began to question the geocentric theory. The Heliocentric Theory Although backed by authority and ­common sense, the geocentric theory did not accurately explain the ­movements of the sun, moon, and planets. This prob- lem troubled a Polish cleric and astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus (nik uh LAY uhs koh PUR nuh kuhs). In the early 1500s, Copernicus became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus reasoned that the stars, the earth, and the other ­planets revolved around the sun. Venus the stars Copernicus’s heliocentric, or sun-centered, Earth Saturn Mars Sun Mercury Jupiter theory still did not completely explain why This model shows how Copernicus saw the planets the planets orbited the way they did. He revolving around the sun. also knew that most scholars and clergy Enlightenment and Revolution 481  would reject his theory because it contradicted their religious views. Copernicus did not publish his findings until 1543, the last year of his life. He received a copy of his book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, on his deathbed. Even though it was revolutionary, Copernicus’s book caused little stir at first. Over the next century and a half, other scientists built on the foun- dations Copernicus had laid. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe (TEE koh-brah), carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years, noting their positions in the sky over time. Brahe produced moun- tains of accurate data based on his observations. However, it was left to his followers to make mathematical sense of them. After Brahe’s death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician named Johannes Kepler (yo HAHN uhs-KEP ler), continued his work. After studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed that the planets must revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as Copernicus had thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true, however. They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun. Galileo’s Discoveries Italian scientist Galileo Galilei built on the new the- ories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo built his own telescope in 1609 and used it to study the heavens. Then, in 1610, he published a small book called Starry Messenger, which described his astonishing observations. Galileo announced that Jupi- ter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that the earth’s moon had a rough, uneven surface. This shattered Aristotle’s theory that the moon and stars were made of a pure, perfect substance. Galileo’s observations, as well as his laws of motion, also clearly supported the theories of Copernicus. Conflict with the Church Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and Protestant leaders because they went against church teaching and author- ity. If people believed the church could be wrong about this, they might question other church teachings as well. In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. Although Galileo remained publicly silent, he continued his studies. Then, in 1632, he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptol- emy, but it clearly showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory. The pope angrily summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition, a court held to suppress ideas and beliefs that conflicted with Catholic teachings. Galileo stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false. 482 Module 12 Document-Based Investigation Historical Source Galileo’s Confession When he was called before a papal court, Galileo had to make a difficult decision. Should he continue to support the heliocentric theory and anger the Church or confess to wrongdoing and stop publishing his work? He chose the latter. “With sincere heart and unpretended faith I abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies [of Copernicus] and also every other error... contrary to the Holy Church, and I swear that in the future I will never again say or assert... anything that might cause a similar suspicion toward me.” —Galileo Galilei, quoted in The Discoverers Analyze Historical Sources In what two ways does Galileo seek to appease the Church in his confession? Reading Check Galileo was never again a free man. He lived under house arrest and died Find Main Ideas in 1642 at his villa near Florence. However, his books and ideas still spread How did Kepler’s findings support the all over Europe. (In 1992, the Catholic Church officially ­acknowledged that heliocentric theory? Galileo had been right.) The Scientific Method The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo began eventually developed into a new approach to science called the scientific method. The scientific method is a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. It begins with a problem or question aris- ing from an observation. Scientists next form a hypothesis, or unproved assumption. The hypothesis is then tested in an experiment or on the basis of data. In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a new conclusion. That conclusion either confirms or disproves the hypothesis. The scientific method emphasizes two different types of thinking— deductive and inductive reasoning. Using deductive reasoning, scientists start with a theory and test the theory with experiments and observa- tions. This is sometimes called “going from the top down.” When they look for patterns in data from experiments and observation and come up with ­conclusions, they are using inductive reasoning. This sometimes called “going from the bottom up.” Enlightenment and Revolution 483 Major Steps in the Scientific Revolution 1609 1566 Kepler publishes 1610 Marie de Coste Blanche first two laws Galileo publishes publishes The Nature of of planetary Starry Messenger. the Sun and Earth. 1570 motion. 1620 1543 1590 1620 Copernicus publishes Janssen invents Bacon’s book Novum Organum heliocentric theory. microscope. (New Instrument) encourages experimental method. Vesalius publishes human anatomy textbook. Nicolaus Copernicus began the Scientific Revolution with his Bacon and Descartes The scientific method did not develop overnight. heliocentric theory. The work of two important thinkers of the 1600s, Francis Bacon and René Descartes, helped to advance the new approach. Francis Bacon, an English statesman and writer, had a passionate inter- est in science. He believed that by better understanding the world, sci- entists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people’s lives. In his writings, Bacon attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers. Instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. This approach is called empiricism, or the experimental method. In France, René Descartes also took a keen interest in science. He devel- oped analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. This pro- vided an important new tool for scientific research. Like Bacon, Descartes believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. As a mathematician, however, he approached gaining knowledge differently from Bacon. Rather than using experimen- tation, Descartes relied on mathematics and logic. He believed that every- thing should be doubted until proved by reason. The only thing he knew for certain was that he existed—because, as he wrote, “I think, therefore I am.” From this starting point, he followed a train of strict reasoning to arrive at other basic truths. The methodologies followed by modern sciences are based on the ideas Reading Check of Bacon and Descartes. Scientists from the 1700s to the present have Contrast How did determined that observation and experimentation, together with general Descartes’s approach to science differ laws that can be expressed mathematically, can lead people to a better from Bacon’s? understanding of the natural world. 484 Module 12  1637 Descartes’s 1662 book Discourse Boyle discovers mathematical relationship between the pressure and volume of gases, 1714 on Method known as Boyle’s law. Fahrenheit sets forth his invents 1628 scientific method mercury Harvey reveals of reasoning 1674 thermometer. how human from the basis of Leeuwenhoek observes heart functions. doubt. 1670 bacteria through microscope. 1643 1666 1720 1633 Torricelli France establishes 1687 Galileo faces Inquisition invents Academy of Sciences. Newton for support of barometer. publishes law Copernicus’s theory. 1660 of gravity. England establishes Royal Society to support scientific study. Newton Explains the Law of Gravity By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had shattered the old views of astronomy and physics. Later, the great Eng- lish scientist Isaac Newton helped to bring together their breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces. Newton’s great discovery was that the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space. The key idea that linked motion in the heavens with motion on the earth was the law of universal gravitation. According to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. Isaac Newton’s law of In 1687, Newton published his ideas in a work entitled The Mathemati- gravity explained how cal Principles of Natural Philosophy (sometimes known by its Latin title, the same physical Principia Mathematica). It was one of the most important scientific books laws govern motion both on earth and in ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. Its parts the heavens. all worked together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathemati- cally. Newton believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had set everything in motion. Many other scientists Reading Check and philosophers during the Scientific Revolution, including Descartes, Clarify Why was the law of gravitation agreed with Newton’s view of the role of God in the universe. This type of important? ­thinking was called deism, from the Latin word for God. Changing Idea: Scientific Method Old Science New Science Scholars generally relied on ancient In time, scholars began to use observation, authorities, church teachings, common experimentation, and scientific reasoning sense, and reasoning to explain the physical to gather knowledge and draw conclusions world. about the physical world. Enlightenment and Revolution 485  The Scientific Revolution Spreads As astronomers explored the secrets of the universe, other scientists began to study the secrets of nature on earth. Careful observation and the use of the scientific method eventually became important in many different fields. Scientific Instruments Scientists developed new tools and instruments to make the precise observations that the scientific method demanded. The first microscope was invented in 1590 by a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, Zacharias Janssen (YAHN suhn). In the 1670s, a Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY vuhn huk) used a microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time. In 1643, one of Galileo’s students, Evangelista Torricelli (tawr uh CHEHL ee), developed the first mercury barometer, a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather. In 1714, the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit (FAR uhn hyt) made the first thermometer to use mercury in glass. Fahrenheit’s thermometer showed water freezing at 32°. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius (SEHL see uhs), created another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742. Celsius’s scale showed freezing at 0°. Medicine and the Human Body During the Middle Ages, European doc- tors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek physician named Galen. However, Galen had never dissected the body of a human being. Instead, he had studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals. Galen assumed that human anatomy was much the same. In the 1500s, a Flem- ish physician named Andreas Vesalius proved Galen’s assumptions wrong. Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his ­observations. His book, On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscles. The famous Dutch artist Rembrandt painted Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp in 1632 from an actual anatomy lesson. The corpse was that of a criminal. 486 Module 12  In the late 1700s, British physician Edward Jenner introduced a vac- Vocabulary cine to prevent smallpox. Inoculation using live smallpox germs had been inoculation the practiced in Asia for centuries. While beneficial, this technique could act of injecting a germ into a person’s also be dangerous. Jenner discovered that inoculation with germs from body so as to create a cattle disease called cowpox gave permanent protection from smallpox an immunity to the for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks for this disease form of ­inoculation were much lower. Jenner used cowpox to produce the world’s first vaccination. Discoveries in Chemistry Robert Boyle pioneered the use of the ­scientific method in chemistry. Boyle had studied classical ideas about chemistry and medieval ideas including alchemy. Alchemists believed that base metals such as lead and copper could be transformed into silver and gold. Using both observations and experimentation, Boyle attempted to apply the principles and methods of chemistry to the study of the natural world and to medicine. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In a book called The Sceptical Chymist (1661), Boyle challenged Aristotle’s idea that the physical world consisted of four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that matter was made up of smaller ­primary particles that joined together in different ways. Boyle’s most famous contribution to chemistry is Boyle’s law. This law explains how the volume, temperature, and pressure of a gas affect each other. The notions of reason and order, which spurred so many breakthroughs in science, soon moved into other fields of life. Philosophers and schol- ars across Europe began to rethink long-held beliefs about the human Reading Check ­condition, most notably the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens. Make Inferences These thinkers helped to usher in a movement that challenged the age-old Why were Galen’s descriptions of human relationship between a government and its people and eventually changed anatomy inaccurate? forever the political landscape in numerous societies. Lesson 1 Assessment 1. Organize Information Which event or circumstance 4. Contrast How did the scientific method differ from do you consider to be the most significant? Why? the approach generally followed by Medieval scholars? 5. Draw Conclusions “If I have seen farther than others,” said Newton, “it is because I have stood on the shoul- ders of giants.” Could this statement be said of most Causes of the scientific accomplishments? Explain. Scientific Revolution 6. Analyze Motives Why might institutions of authority tend to reject new ideas developed by scientists and other thinkers? 7. Form and Support Opinions Do you agree with Gali- 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in leo’s actions during his Inquisition? Explain. the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. 3. Analyze Issues Why did the Catholic Church oppose the spreading of the heliocentric theory by scientists? Enlightenment and Revolution 487  Lesson 2 Enlightenment Thinkers Setting the Stage The Big Idea In the wake of the Scientific Revolution and the new A revolution in intellectual activ- ways of thinking it prompted, scholars and philosophers ity changed Europeans’ view of began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects government and society. of society. They sought new insight into the underlying Why It Matters Now beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and The various freedoms enjoyed education. Their efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a in many countries today are a new intellectual movement that stressed reason and result of Enlightenment thinking. thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. Key Terms and People Known also as the Age of Reason, the movement reached its height in the mid-1700s and brought great Enlightenment social contract change to many aspects of Western civilization. John Locke philosophe Two Views on Government rationalism The Enlightenment started from some key ideas put forth by Voltaire two English political thinkers of the 1600s, Thomas Hobbes Montesquieu Rousseau and John Locke. Both men experienced the political turmoil of England early in that century. However, they came to very dif- ferent conclusions about government and human nature. Hobbes’s Social Contract Thomas Hobbes expressed his views in a work called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Without governments to keep order, Hobbes said, there would be “war... of every man against every man” and life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, Thomas Hobbes and short.” Hobbes argued that to escape such a bleak life, people had to hand over their rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they gained law and order. Hobbes called this agreement by which people created a government the social contract. Because people acted in their own self-interest, Hobbes said, the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control. The best government was one that had the awesome power 488 Module 12  of a leviathan (sea monster). In Hobbes’s view, such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience. Locke’s Natural Rights The philosopher John Locke held a different, more positive view of human nature. He believed that people could learn from experience and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the wel- fare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natu- ral or human rights—life, liberty, and property. The purpose of govern- ment, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. Locke’s theory had a deep influence on modern political thinking. His belief that a government’s power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy. Locke’s ideas of popular sovereignty, or government by popular consent, and the right to rebel against unjust rulers helped inspire struggles for liberty in Europe and the Americas. Changing Idea: The Right to Govern Old Idea New Idea A monarch’s rule is justified by divine right. A government’s power comes from the consent of the governed. Locke’s writings also led to new theories of education in Europe. Chil- dren are born with open minds, Locke wrote, and through education they Reading Check can be taught society’s important values. This type of thinking led some Contrast How does European rulers to issue edicts requiring young children to attend schools. Locke’s view of human nature differ from that Still, educational opportunities remained limited for girls or for those of Hobbes? whose families did not belong to state churches. The Philosophes Advocate Reason The Enlightenment reached its height in France in the mid-1700s. Paris became the meeting place for people who wanted to discuss politics and share ideas. The social critics of this period in France were known as philosophes (FIHL uh sahfs), the French word for “philosophers.” The phi- losophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life, just as Isaac Newton had applied reason to science. Five concepts formed the core of their beliefs: 1. Reason Enlightenment thinkers, building on ideas set forth earlier by Descartes, believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking. This concept is sometimes called rationalism. 2. Nature The philosophes believed that what was natural was also good and reasonable. Enlightenment thinkers such as Locke focused on the rights that people have in their natural state as human beings in order to live in dignity. These rights cannot be taken away by any society or government. Enlightenment and Revolution 489  3. Happiness The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that people should find joy in the hereafter and urged people to seek well-being on earth. 4. Progress The philosophes stressed that society and humankind could improve. 5. Liberty The philosophes called for the liberties that the English people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights. Voltaire Combats Intolerance Probably the most brilliant and influential of the philosophes was François Marie Arouet. Using the pen name Voltaire, he published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama. Vocabulary Voltaire often used satire against his opponents. He made frequent tar- satire the use of gets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government. His sharp tongue irony, sarcasm, or wit to attack folly, vice, made him enemies at the French court, and twice he was sent to prison. or stupidity After his second jail term, Voltaire was exiled to England for more than two years. Although he made powerful enemies, Voltaire never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech. He William Hogarth’s used his quill pen as if it were a deadly weapon in a thinker’s war against painting Canvassing for humanity’s worst enemies—intolerance, prejudice, and superstition. Votes offers a satirical He summed up his staunch defense of liberty in one of his most famous view of a corrupt British politician and his aides quotes: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death bribing voters ahead of your right to say it.” an election. 490 Module 12  Biography Voltaire (1694–1778) Voltaire befriended several European monarchs and nobles. Among them was Prussian king Frederick II. The two men seemed like ideal companions. Both were witty and preferred to dress in shabby, rumpled clothes. Their relationship eventually soured, however. Voltaire disliked editing Frederick’s mediocre poetry, while Frederick suspected Voltaire of shady business dealings. Voltaire eventually described the Prussian king as “a nasty monkey, perfidious friend, [and] wretched poet.” Frederick in turn called Voltaire a “miser, dirty rogue, [and] coward.” While Voltaire and other writers during this period made satiric attacks with their pens, English artist William Hogarth used a paintbrush to make fun of social and political evils. In his painting Canvassing for Votes, he comments on political corruption. While the candidate flirts with the ladies on the balcony, his supporters offer a man money for his vote. Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers Another influential French writer, the Baron de Montesquieu (MAHN tuh skyoo), devoted himself to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day. The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative power. They made the laws. The judges of the English courts held judicial power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific case. Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches separation of powers. Montesquieu oversimplified the British system. It did not actually sepa- rate powers this way. His idea, however, became a part of his most famous book, On the Spirit of Laws (1748). In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the government. “Power,” he wrote, “should be a check to power.” This idea later would be called checks and balances. Enlightenment and Revolution 491  Montesquieu’s book was admired by political leaders in the British colo- nies of North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances became the basis for the United States Constitution. Rousseau: Champion of Freedom A third great philosophe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (roo SOH), was passionately committed to individual freedom. The son of a poor Swiss watchmaker, Rousseau won recognition as a writer of essays. A strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly disagreed with other Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness. “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,” he wrote. DOCUMENT-BASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source Two Views on Laws in a Democracy “I... therefore give the name ‘Republic’ to every state that is governed by laws, no matter what the form of its Both Rousseau and Montesquieu administration may be: for only in such a case does the believed firmly that fair and just public interest govern, and the res publica [republic] rank laws—not monarchs or unrestrained as a reality.... Laws are, properly speaking, only the mobs—should govern society. In conditions of civil association. The people, being subject these quotes, Rousseau reflects on laws as part of the contract holding to the laws, ought to be their author: the conditions of a democratic society together while the society ought to be regulated... by those who come Montesquieu sees laws as providing a together to form it.” necessary limitation of freedom. —Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract “It is true that in democracies the people seem to act as they please; but political liberty does not consist in an unlimited freedom.... We must have continually present to our minds the difference between independence and liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws permit, and if a citizen could do what they [the laws] forbid Analyze Historical Sources he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his How do Rousseau and Montesquieu fellow-citizens would have the same power.” differ in their view of the role of laws in a —Baron de Montesquieu, democracy? The Spirit of Laws 492 Module 12 Major Ideas of the Enlightenment Idea Thinker Impact Natural and human Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence rights—life, liberty, property Separation of powers Montesquieu France, United States, and Latin American nations use separation of powers in new constitutions Freedom of thought and Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of expression Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate censorship Civil rights, including Beccaria Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of abolishment of torture Europe and the Americas Religious freedom Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce persecution Interpret Charts 1. Analyze Issues What important documents reflect the influence of Enlightenment ideas? 2. Evaluate Concepts Which are the two most important Enlightenment ideas? Support your answer with reasons. Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the “general will” of society—a direct democracy. Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book called The Social Contract. Rousseau’s view of the social contract differed greatly from that of Hobbes. For Hobbes, the social contract was an agreement between a society and its government. For Rousseau, it was an Jean Jacques Rousseau agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government. Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitimate government came from the consent of the governed. However, Rousseau believed in a much broader democracy than Locke had promoted. He argued that all people were equal and that titles of nobility should be abolished. Rousseau’s ideas inspired many of the leaders of the French Revolution who overthrew the monarchy in 1789. Enlightenment and Revolution 493  Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice While Locke and Rousseau focused on natural or human rights, an Italian philosophe named Cesare Bone- sana Beccaria (bayk uh REE ah) wrote about people’s civil rights, the rights they deserved as citizens of a city or country. Turning his attention to the justice system, he reasoned that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Beccaria regularly criticized common abuses of justice. They included torturing of witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and punishments that were arbitrary or cruel. He argued that a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial and that torture should never be used. Moreover, he said, the degree of punishment should be based on the seriousness of the crime. He also believed that capital pun- Reading Check ishment should be abolished. Form Generalizations Beccaria based his ideas about justice and civil rights on the principle What did all of the that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of philosophes see as the purpose and value of people. His ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and reason? North America. Lesson 2 Assessment 1. Organize Information Which impact of the Enlighten- 3. Analyze Issues Why did John Locke oppose the ment do you consider most important and why? Use idea of an absolute monarch running a country’s an outline to help organize your thoughts. government? 4. Draw Conclusions What did social critics such as the Enlightenment in Europe philosophes hope to accomplish through their writ- I. Two Views on Government ings and art? A. 5. Synthesize Explain how the following statement B. II. The Philosophes reflects Enlightenment ideas: “Power should be a check Advocate Reason to power.” A. 6. Analyze Effects Why was Voltaire’s use of satire B. effective? 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in 7. Draw Conclusions Do you think the philosophes were the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. optimistic about the future of humankind? Explain. 494 Module 12  Lesson 3 The Enlightenment Spreads Setting the Stage The Big Idea The philosophes’ views about society often got them Enlightenment ideas spread in trouble. In France, it was illegal to criticize either the through the Western world and Catholic Church or the government. Many philosophes profoundly influenced the arts landed in jail or were exiled. Voltaire, for example, and government. experienced both punishments. Nevertheless, the Why It Matters Now Enlightenment spread throughout Europe with the An “enlightened” problem- help of books, magazines, and word of mouth. In time, solving approach to government Enlightenment ideas influenced everything from the and society prevails in modern artistic world to the royal courts across the continent. civilization today. Key Terms and People A World of Ideas salons In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural and intellectual capital baroque of Europe. Young people from around Europe—and also from neoclassical the Americas—came to study, philosophize, and enjoy the Mary Wollstonecraft culture of the bustling city. The brightest minds of the age enlightened despot gathered there. From their circles radiated the ideas of the Catherine the Great Enlightenment. The buzz of Enlightenment ideas was most intense in the mansions of several wealthy women of Paris. In their large drawing rooms, these hostesses held regular social gatherings called salons. At these events, philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other intellects met to discuss ideas. Diderot’s Encyclopedia The most influential of the salon hostesses in Voltaire’s time was Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin (zhuh frehn). She helped finance the project of a leading phi- losophe named Denis Diderot (DEE duh roh). Diderot created a large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays. He called it Encyclopedia and began publishing the first volumes in 1751. The Enlightenment views expressed in the articles soon angered both the French government and the Catholic Church. Their censors banned the work. They said it undermined royal authority, encouraged a spirit of revolt, and fostered “moral corruption, irreligion, and unbelief.” Nonetheless, Diderot con- tinued publishing his Encyclopedia. Enlightenment and Revolution 495  The salons and the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas Reading Check Draw Conclusions to educated people all over Europe. Enlightenment ideas also eventually Why did the Catholic spread through newspapers, pamphlets, and even political songs. Enlight- Church seek to enment ideas about government and equality attracted the attention of a censor the writings of Enlightenment growing literate middle class, which could afford to buy many books and thinkers? support the work of artists. Now and Then Online Encyclopedias These days, when people around the world want to explore new ideas and learn information about a wide range of subects, they often click onto online encyclopedias. Some online encyclopedias are free, and some charge a monthly fee to access their entries. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular online encyclopedia. Wikipedia.com first went live on January 15, 2001. Its founder established a set of rules and invited people from around the world to submit entries on subjects on which they had expertise. A large number of volunteer editors were charged with reviewing content to make sure that writers provided sources for information, tried to be accurate, and were entries in the English-language version of unbiased. The site’s software keeps a log of any Wikipedia submitted or edited by more than 10 change made to any entry. In this way, Wikipedia million contributors. Wikipedia is available in tries to assure that no one tampers with entries, more than 250 other languages as well, including introduces errors, or vandalizes entries with a American Indian languages. While many students malicious intent. use Wikipedia to find information for their reports in school, most teachers question whether Just as the popularity of Diderot’s Encyclopedia Wikipedia entries are totally accurate and require spread throughout Europe, Wikipedia has become students to confirm the information in more a worldwide source of information. As of reliable sources, such as Britannica.com. August 2015, there were more than 3 million New Artistic Styles The Enlightenment ideals of order and reason were reflected in the arts— music, literature, painting, and architecture. Neoclassical Style Emerges European art of the 1600s and early 1700s had been dominated by the style called baroque, which was characterized by a grand, ornate design. Baroque styles could be seen in elaborate palaces such as Versailles in France and in numerous paintings. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, styles began to change. Artists and architects worked in a simple and elegant style that borrowed ideas and themes from classical Greece and Rome. The main artistic style of the late 1700s is therefore called neoclassical (“new classical”). Science played an important role in this trend: neoclassical artists were inspired by archaeological discoveries about the classical world. 496 Module 12  These two buildings reflect the changes in architectural styles taking place during the Enlightenment. (Top) The Cathedral of Santa Agatha in Catania, Sicily, was designed in baroque style, with elaborate arches, marble statues, and angled panels. (Bottom) The neoclassical palace of Poland’s last king, located in Warsaw, features classical columns and flat, blank walls. Changes in Music and Literature Music styles also changed to reflect Enlightenment ideals. The music scene in Europe had been dominated by such composers as Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Fried- rich Handel of England. These artists wrote dramatic organ and choral music. During the Enlightenment, a new, lighter, and more elegant style of music known as classical emerged. Three composers in Vienna, Austria, rank among the greatest figures of the classical period in music. They were Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven. Writers in the 18th century also developed new styles and forms of literature. A number of European authors began writing novels, which are lengthy works of prose fiction. Their works had carefully crafted plots, used suspense, and explored characters’ thoughts and feelings. These books were popular with a wide middle-class audience who liked the enter- taining stories written in everyday language. Writers, including many women, turned out a flood of popular novels in the 1700s. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela is often considered the first true English Reading Check novel. It tells the story of a young servant girl who refuses the advances of Contrast How her master. Another English masterpiece, Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding, did baroque and neoclassical tells the story of an orphan who travels all over England to win the hand architecture differ? of his lady. Enlightenment and Revolution 497  Women and the Enlightenment During the Enlightenment period, European women generally had few legal or property rights. Although the philosophes challenged many assumptions about government and society, they often took a traditional view toward women. Rousseau, for example, developed many progressive ideas about education. However, he believed that a girl’s education should mainly teach her how to be a helpful wife and mother. Other male social critics scolded women for reading novels because they thought it encour- aged idleness and wickedness. Enlightenment writers even used scientific discoveries about female anatomy to support the view that women were only suited for domestic roles. Still, some male writers argued for more education for women and for women’s equality in marriage. Women writers also tried to improve the status of women. In 1694, the English writer Mary Astell published A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. Her book addressed the lack of educational opportunities for women. In later writings, she used Enlightenment arguments about government to criti- cize the unequal relationship between men and women in marriage. She wrote, “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family?... If all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?” During the 1700s, other women picked up these themes. Among the most persuasive was Mary Wollstonecraft, who published an essay called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. In the essay, she disagreed with Rousseau that women’s education should be secondary to men’s. Rather, she argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful. Wollstonecraft also urged women to enter the male-dominated fields of medicine and politics. Women made important contributions to the Enlightenment in other Reading Check Draw Conclusions ways, such as the salons you read about earlier in this lesson. Why do you think the One woman fortunate enough to receive an education in the sciences issue of education was Emilie du Châtelet (shah tlay). Du Châtelet was an aristocrat trained was important to both Astell and as a mathematician and physicist. By translating Newton’s work from Wollstonecraft? Latin into French, she helped stimulate interest in science in France. Enlightenment and Monarchy From the salons, artists’ studios, and concert halls of Europe, the Enlight- enment spirit also swept through Europe’s royal courts. Many philosophes, including Voltaire, believed that the best form of government was a mon- archy in which the ruler respected the people’s rights. The philosophes tried to convince monarchs to rule justly. Some monarchs embraced the new ideas and made reforms that reflected the Enlightenment spirit. They became known as enlightened despots. Despot means “absolute ruler.” 498 Module 12  Biography Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) A strong advocate of education for women, Wollstonecraft herself received little formal schooling. She and her two sisters taught themselves by studying books at home. With her sisters, she briefly ran a school. These experiences shaped much of her thoughts about education. Wollstonecraft eventually took a job with a London publisher. There, she met many leading radicals of the day. One of them was her future husband, the writer William Godwin. Wollstonecraft died at age 38, after giving birth to their daughter, Mary. This child, whose married name was Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, went on to write the classic novel Frankenstein. The enlightened despots supported the philosophes’ ideas. But they also had no intention of giving up any power. The changes they made were motivated by two desires: they wanted to make their countries stronger and their own rule more effective. The foremost of Europe’s enlightened despots were Frederick II of Prussia, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia. Frederick the Great Frederick II, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, committed himself to reforming Prussia. He granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education. For example, he issued an edict requiring children in Prussia to attend primary schools. He also reformed the justice system and abolished the use of torture. In addi- tion, he improved his army by giving promotions based on merit and hard work rather than on the basis of class. However, Frederick’s changes only Vocabulary went so far. For example, he believed that serfdom was wrong, but he did serfdom a system in nothing to end it since he needed the support of wealthy landowners. As a which peasants were forced to live and result, he never tried to change the existing social order. work on a landowner’s Perhaps Frederick’s most important contribution was his attitude estate toward being king. He called himself “the first servant of the state.” From the beginning of his reign, he made it clear that his goal was to serve and strengthen his country. This attitude was clearly one that appealed to the philosophes. Enlightenment and Revolution 499  Joseph II The most radical royal reformer was Joseph II of Austria. The son and suc- cessor of Maria Theresa, Joseph II ruled the Holy Roman Empire with his mother start- ing in 1765 and ruled Austria alone from 1780 to 1790. He introduced legal reforms and freedom of the press and expanded education opportunities within Austria. He also supported freedom of worship, even for Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews. In his most radical reform, Joseph abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash. Not surprisingly, the nobles resisted this change. Like many of Joseph’s reforms, it was undone after he died. Catherine the Great The ruler most admired by the philosophes was Catherine II of Rus- sia, known as Catherine the Great. She ruled from 1762 to 1796. The well-educated empress read the works of philosophes, and she exchanged many letters with Voltaire. Joseph II She ruled with absolute authority but also sought to reform Russia. In 1767, Catherine formed a commission to review Russia’s laws. She presented it with a brilliant proposal for reforms based on the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria. Among other changes, she recommended allowing religious toleration and abolishing torture and capital punish- ment. Her commission, however, accomplished none of these lofty goals. Catherine eventually put in place limited reforms, but she did little to improve the life of the Russian peasants. Her views about enlightened ideas changed after a massive uprising of serfs in 1773. With great bru- tality, Catherine’s army crushed the rebellion. Catherine had previously favored an end to serfdom. However, the revolt convinced her that she needed the nobles’ support to keep her throne. Therefore, she gave the nobles absolute power over the serfs. As a result, Russian serfs lost their last traces of freedom. Catherine Expands Russia Peter the Great, who ruled Russia in the early 1700s, had fought for years to win a port on the Baltic Sea. Likewise, Cath- erine sought access to the Black Sea. In two wars with the Ottoman Turks, her armies finally won control of the northern shore of the Black Sea. Rus- sia also gained the right to send ships through Ottoman-controlled straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Catherine also expanded her empire westward into Poland. In Poland, the king was relatively weak, and independent nobles held the most power. 500 Module 12  The three neighboring kingdoms—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—each tried to assert their influence over the country. In 1772, these land- hungry neighbors each took a piece in what is called the First Partition of Poland. In further partitions in 1793 and 1795, they grabbed up the rest of Poland’s territory. With these partitions, Poland disappeared as an inde- pendent country for more than a century. By the end of her remarkable reign, Catherine had vastly enlarged the Reading Check Synthesize How Russian empire. She also made significant improvements to Russia’s gov- accurately does the ernment administration and economy. But as she developed Russia into an term “enlightened international power, she lost sight of the ideals she held at the beginning despot” describe Catherine the Great? of her reign. Instead of promoting justice in Russian society, she became Explain. known as a tyrant. Changing Idea: Relationship Between Ruler and State Old Idea New Idea The state and its citizens exist to serve the The monarch exists to serve the state and monarch. As Louis XIV reportedly said, “I am support citizens’ welfare. As Frederick the the state.” Great said, a ruler is only “the first servant of the state.” BIOGRAPHY Catherine the Great (1729–1796) The daughter of a minor German prince, Catherine was 15 when she was handed over to marry the Grand Duke Peter, heir to the Russian throne. Peter was mentally unstable. Catherine viewed her husband’s weakness as her chance for power. She made important friends among Russia’s army officers and became known as the most intelligent and best-informed person at court. In 1762, only months after her husband became czar, Catherine had him arrested and confined. Soon afterward, Peter conveniently died, probably by murder. Enlightenment and Revolution 501  Legacy of the Enlightenment Over a span of a few decades, Enlightenment writers challenged long-held ideas about society. They examined such principles as the divine right of monarchs, the union of church and state, and the existence of unequal social classes. They held these beliefs up to the light of reason and found them in need of reform. The philosophes mainly lived in the world of ideas. They formed and popularized new theories. Although they encouraged reform, they were not active revolutionaries. However, their theories eventually inspired the This painting shows people examining American and French revolutions and other revolutionary movements in a miniature the 1800s. Enlightenment thinking produced three other long-term effects planetarium, which that helped shape Western civilization. presented new ideas about the structure of It is difficult to tell how deeply these ideas spread into European societ- the solar system. ies. Educational reforms expanded the reading public during this period, and books and periodicals became more easily available. Ideas also spread informally through salons and literary clubs. Yet many working-class peo- ple, especially in rural areas, still could not read. Although we don’t know what information spread by word of mouth, it is likely that most poorer Europeans had little exposure to the Enlightenment. Belief in Progress The first effect was a belief in progress. Pioneers such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton had discovered the key for unlock- ing the mysteries of nature in the 1500s and 1600s. With the door thus opened, the growth of scientific knowledge seemed to quicken in the 1700s. Scientists made key new discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology, and mechanics. The successes of the Scientific Revolution gave rise to a belief in social progress. Leading thinkers of the age were confident that humans, using reason, could find ways to solve society’s problems. Many philosophes and reformers urged an end to the practice of slav- ery and argued for greater social equality, as well as a more democratic style of government. The idea of universal human rights was central to these social reform movements. However, some Enlightenment thinkers, including Voltaire, viewed Africans and other nonwhite peoples as infe- rior. Eighteenth-century ideas about racial differences helped support the expansion of colonialism and the global slave trade. A More Secular Outlook A second outcome was the rise of a more secu- lar, or nonreligious, outlook. During the Enlightenment, people began to question openly their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church. One by one, scientists discovered that the mysteries of the universe could be explained mathematically or through scientific processes. A new type of human-centered philosophy emerged, teaching that individuals could control their own lives through reason and self-determination rather than relying on an all-knowing deity. Although the church often considered this secular philosophy a threat, there were religious thinkers who embraced reason and scientific inquiry. Newton himself was a deeply religious man, and he sought to reveal God’s majesty through his work. However, his findings often caused people to change the way they thought about God. 502 Module 12  Newton, Locke, and other major thinkers of the time were called deists. They believed that people should determine their religious beliefs mainly through reason instead of scripture. Some deists, such as Voltaire, harshly criticized the beliefs and practices of organized Christianity. They wanted to rid religious faith of superstition and fear and to promote tolerance of all religions. Importance of the Individual Faith in science and in progress produced a third outcome, the rise of individualism. As people began to turn away from the church and royalty for guidance, they looked to themselves instead. The philosophes encouraged people to use their own ability to reason in order to judge what was right or wrong. They also emphasized the importance of the individual in society. Government, they argued, was formed by individuals to promote their welfare. The British thinker Adam Smith extended the emphasis on the individual to economic thinking. He believed that individuals acting in their own self-interest created eco- nomic progress. Smith advocated the end of a system popular in Europe in the 1600s and 1700s known as mercantilism. In this system, countries believed they could increase their wealth by encouraging exports and dis- couraging imports. Smith called for freer trade practices and argued that countries could get wealthy and could keep more people employed by being both exporters and importers within a free market system. Reading Check During the Enlightenment, the greatest minds of Europe developed new Draw Conclusions ideas about reforming society. Some European kings and queens tried to Why did the ideas apply these ideas to create progress in their countries. This influence also of the Enlightenment spread across the Atlantic. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, colonial lead- not have much impact on the lives of poorer ers in America decided to do the unthinkable: break away from their ruling Europeans? country and found an independent republic. Lesson 3 Assessment 1. Organize Information What are two generalizations 3. Compare What characteristics did classical music and you could make about the spread of Enlightenment neoclassical architecture have in common? ideas? 4. Make Inferences Why was the term “enlightened despot” appropriate to describe rulers such as Joseph art and monarchy II and Catherine the Great? literature 5. Draw Conclusions What advantages did salons have over earlier forms of communication in spreading Spread of ideas? Enlightenment Ideas 6. Analyze Issues Why might some women have been critical of the Enlightenment? circulation 7. Make Inferences How did the Encyclopedia project of ideas reflect the age of Enlightenment? 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. Enlightenment and Revolution 503  Lesson 4 The American Revolution Setting the Stage The Big Idea Philosophes such as Voltaire considered England’s Enlightenment ideas helped government the most progressive in Europe. The Glori- spur the American colonies to ous Revolution of 1688 had given England a constitu- shed British rule and create a tional monarchy. In essence, this meant that various new nation. laws limited the power of the English king. Despite the Why It Matters Now view of the philosophes, however, a growing number of The revolution created a repub- England’s colonists in North America accused England lic, the United States of America, of tyrannical rule. Emboldened by Enlightenment ideas, that became a model for many they would attempt to overthrow what was then the nations of the world. mightiest power on earth and create their own nation. Key Terms and People Declaration of Independence Britain and Its American Colonies Thomas Jefferson Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, British colonists had formed checks and balances a large and thriving settlement along the eastern shore of federal system North America. When George III became king of Great Brit- Bill of Rights ain in 1760, his North American colonies were growing by leaps and bounds. Their combined population soared from about 250,000 in 1700 to 2,150,000 in 1770, a nearly ninefold increase. Economically, the colonies thrived on trade with the nations of Europe. Along with increasing population and prosperity, a new sense of identity was growing in the colonists’ minds. By the mid-1700s, colonists had been living in America for nearly 150 years. Each of the 13 colonies had its own government, and people were used to a great degree of independence. Colonists saw themselves less as British and more as Virginians or Penn- sylvanians. However, they were still British subjects and were expected to obey British law. In 1651, the British Parliament passed a trade law called the Navigation Act. This and subsequent trade laws prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products to any country except Britain. In addition, colonists had to pay high taxes on imported French and Dutch goods. Despite the various trade restrictions, Britain’s policies benefited both the colonies and the motherland. Britain bought American 504 Module 12  raw materials for low prices and sold manufactured goods to the colonists for a profit. Meanwhile, colonial merchants also made money when they sold British-made goods to the colonists. The connection between American raw materials and British manufac- tured goods became even more important with the rise of industrializa- tion in Britain in the 1700s. New inventions, such as spinning and weaving Reading Check machines, made it possible for British textile manufacturers to greatly Analyze Effects increase production of cloth. The availability of large supplies of American In what ways did cotton, which the colonists were required to sell to Britain, helped to make the American colonies help Britain’s Britain a worldwide leader in cotton textiles. In addition, the American economy? colonies were a major market for British cloth. The Cloth Hall in Leeds, England, was a busy marketplace for British-made textiles. Americans Win Independence In 1754, war erupted on the North American continent between the Eng- lish and the French. As you recall, the French had also colonized parts of North America throughout the 1600s and 1700s. The conflict was known as the French and Indian War. (The name stems from the fact that the French enlisted numerous Native American tribes to fight on their side.) The fighting lasted until 1763, when Britain and its colonists emerged victorious—and seized nearly all French land in North America. The victory, however, only led to growing tensions between Britain and its colonists. In order to fight the war, Great Britain had run up a huge debt. Because American colonists benefited from Britain’s victory, Britain expected the colonists to help pay the costs of the war. In 1765, Parlia- ment passed the Stamp Act. According to this law, colonists had to pay a tax to have an official stamp put on wills, deeds, newspapers, and other printed material. American colonists were outraged. They had never paid taxes directly to the British government before. Colonial lawyers argued that the stamp tax violated colonists’ natural rights, and they accused the government of “taxation without representation.” In Britain, citizens accepted taxes that their representatives in Parliament had passed. The colonists, however, had no representation in Parliament. Thus, they argued, they could not be taxed. Enlightenment and Revolution 505  Growing Hostility Leads to War Over the next decade, hostilities between the two sides increased. Some colonial leaders favored independence from Britain. In 1773, to protest an import tax on tea, a group of colonists dumped a large load of British tea into Boston Harbor. George III, infuri- ated by the Boston Tea Party, as it was called, ordered the British navy to close the port of Boston. Such harsh tactics by the British infuriated even moderate colonists. In September 1774, representatives from every colony except Georgia gath- ered in Philadelphia to form the First Continental Congress. This group protested the treatment of Boston. When the king paid little attention to their complaints, the colonies decided to form the Second Continental Congress to debate their next move. On April 19, 1775, British soldiers and colonial militiamen exchanged gunfire on the village green in Lexington, Massachusetts. The fighting spread to nearby Concord. The Second