Science of Sport Training - Book PDF

Chapter 1 Sports Training-An Introduction The word ‘training’, in its broad sense, refers to any organized and systematic instructional process, which aims at enhancing man’s ability with regard to physical, psychological and intellectual aspects. In the f...

Chapter 1 Sports Training-An Introduction The word ‘training’, in its broad sense, refers to any organized and systematic instructional process, which aims at enhancing man’s ability with regard to physical, psychological and intellectual aspects. In the field of sports, training is a process, which involves preparation of a sportsperson to attain highest level of sports performance. To improve sports performance, one has to, regularly and systematically, perform a variety of exercises. Mere execution of an exercise does not ensure improvement of performance. Actual effect of exercise depends upon several factors of which the important ones are training load, means of recovery, assessment of loading and performance capacity, sports equipment, nutrition, psychological characteristics and methods adopted for imparting theoretical instruction. If these factors are disregarded, the usefulness of the physical exercise decreases and the sportsperson does not realize optimal benefit. Ward and Watts (1977), the two leading British track and field coaches in their book entitled ‘Athletics for Student and Coach’ wrote, ‘the task of the coach is to help the athlete to achieve excellence’. They have said that sportsperson is the focus of attention; their quest for excellence, whether in an individual or a team sport, is the reason why they commit their talent to a coach. Basically, the coach offers knowledge and time to athletes, and assists them to enhance their skills and fulfill their potential in return for the satisfaction gained from helping others. In this process the coach may receive monetary rewards and/or recognition but the underlying the effective role of the coach is the earnest desire to assist others achieve their potential in sport whether individually or as a member of a team. The relationship between coach and sportspersons is an important one-the sportsperson has the talent and the desire to develop it; the coach has the knowledge and skill to develop that talent. The relationship is one of mutual respect and interdependence. Low Coach Talent Expertise Quality of Training Preparation Knowledge and Personality Physical Technical Tactical Intellectual Fig. 1. The relationship between sportspersons and coach. This complex nature of sports training, in order to be effective and beneficial, requires knowledge and assistance from other sports science disciplines e.g. sports medicine, exercise and sports physiology, sports sociology, sports psychology, sports bio-mechanics, sports nutrition, sports biochemistry and so no. As the performance of a sportsperson improves, the extent of utilization of knowledge from these sports sciences also increases.  Management Sports Scientists Coach Sportsperson Coach Sports Scientists Management Management Sportsperson Sports Coach Scientists Fig. 1. Support Structure in Sports Training In both the above diagrams (Fig.1& 2), the sportsperson is the nucleus and receives all possible support from the coach with whom he maintains a direct contact and who scientifically monitors the training process. Others who help the sportsperson in attaining the highest possible performance is the group of sports scientists belonging to different disciplines who carry out periodic evaluations, identify the gray areas and provide regular feedback so that the coach may incorporate their suggestions in the training programme and guarantee enhancement of performance. Support in the form of management comes from the parents, teachers, friends and colleagues. The support provided by the coaches, sports scientists and others (management) is some how linked. In case the link breaks at any point, the person who suffers is the sportsperson. Therefore, a very good coordination must exist between the coaches, sports scientists and management so that the sportsperson receives the needed help to enable him/her to attain the aim of sports training. An expert in Science of Sports Training will help the coach to work out long and short-term training programmes. The help of the coach in bifurcating the training process into training periods and phases and their further sub-division into training cycles namely macro, meso and micro cycles will be of immense benefit for the sportsperson. He will assist in ascertaining target-training zones so as to correctly administer training loads as per the ability of a sportsperson in order to make the load effective. A coach has to formulate the training programme keeping in mind certain individualistic characteristics namely biological chronological and training ages; training state; talent; psychological factors like personality; intelligence; temperament; social and economical factors; total load taking capacity and possibility to recover. Adherence to these principles only would ensure maximum benefit for the sportsperson. He will also help in working out load-recovery ratio. A scientifically worked out training load in terms of load intensity and load volume would be ineffective for a spotsperson in case the recovery provided is not in proportion to the load administered. The coach has to ensure that the training of his sportsperson is uninterrupted and the training load is steadily increased as soon as the sportsperson gets adapted to the load. Science of Sports Training General Theory Methods of Training Theories derived from Exercise Methods of Training different Motor Physiology, Sport Psychology, Components, Methods of Skill Sports Biomechanics, Sports Acquisition, Methods of Tactical Sociology, Sports Nutrition etc. Training etc. Planning of Training Process Implementation Exercise Prescription, Means & Methods to be used, Loads to be administered, Recovery to be provided etc. Evaluation Formative, Summative, Norm Referenced and Criterion Referenced (Daily, Periodical & Annual) Conclusion An expert in science of sports training will help the coach in monitoring the performance of the sportsperson by  providing scientific inputs based on his evaluation. He will act as a bridge between a particular sports discipline and different sports science experts. Based on the results of laboratory testing, he would interpret the results and translate the same to the coach as well as the sportsperson Fig. 2. Structure of Science of Sports Training Sports training is a systematic process extending over number of days and even months and years. In the course of training, in addition to application of physical load through physical exercise, theoretical instructions are also imparted so as to provide necessary technical and tactical knowledge and intellectual development. Sports training aims at improving sports performance through physical, physiological, psychological, social, intellectual and moral aspects thus contributing to development of all-round personality of the sportsperson. In other words the performance of a sportsperson improves as a result of development of total personality. Therefore, since sports training directly or indirectly focuses attention on development of all-round personality of a sportsperson, sports training is an educational (pedagogical) process. In order to have a clear concept of the word ‘sports training’ it is also essential to understand the meaning of the terms conditioning and coaching. Conditioning is a process of gradually preparing the body for strenuous physical activity thus focusing attention on development of physical and motor fitness components (strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, co- ordinative abilities) and indirectly enhancing sports performance. In general sense the term ‘coaching’ refers to providing help so that a person can execute his job efficiently. As applied to sports, the term ‘coaching’ may be described as a technical skill which involves co- ordination of factors like time sequence, action movement and speed so as to enable a sportsperson to attain highest level of efficiency in a specific sport. According to Martens, coaching involves teaching, training, instructing and helping people to learn skills of games and sports, improve performance and reach their potential. It is also about recognizing, understanding and providing for the social, emotional and personal needs of the sportspersons. Sportspersons are made capable of competing efficiently at national and international levels only when they are given full scientific knowledge about the sports by way of acquiring complete physical preparation, technical mastery and tactical efficiency in addition to development of psychological characteristics important to a specific sport. But all this is not possible without perfect coaching. Definition of Sports Training Sports training is a process of sports perfection directed by scientific and pedagogic principles and aims at leading a sportsperson to high and top level performance in a sport on an event by means of planned and systematic improvement of performance capacity and readiness of performance. Aim and Tasks of Sports Training The aim of sports training is to prepare a sportsperson physically, physiologically and psychologically for a possible highest sports performance at the time of main competition, in a specific sport. In order to make a sportsperson capable of putting up optimal performance, systematic improvement of performance capacity and readiness of performances is to be carried out. To ensure this, the following four tasks are to be achieved. 1.Physical Preparation Complete physical preparation of a sportsperson is ensured as a result of development of essential motor qualities namely strength, endurance, speed, flexibility and co-ordinative abilities. Through training, these motor qualities can be developed separately as well as in combination with each other. These qualities are a pre-requisite for good performance in sports. Therefore, adequate time should be spent so as to train these motor abilities to optimal level. The requirement of these abilities differs from sport to sport. To train these motor qualities, the sportspersons have to regularly participate in general, specific and competitive exercise schedules, which are specific to a sport. 2.Technical Preparation The level of skill attainment of a sportsperson has a direct relation to sports performance. Higher the level of skill, higher will be the performance. In order to acquire skill mastery, one has to undergo technical training. Through technical training the skills are to be stabilized so that during the pressure of competition they do not get adversely affected. Complete technical mastery also ensures economic application of motor abilities during competition thus reducing effort and energy. For good performance, motor abilities become meaningful only if skills of a sport are also mastered. 3.Tactical preparation Tactics means intelligent or creative application of skills during a competition. Knowledge of competition rules, training of tactical concepts and acquiring of tactical skills are essential pre-requisites for complete tactical preparation. Importance of tactics varies form sport to sport. Tactics plays more important role in the team games and in individual sports its role is limited. As the performance improves, the quantum of tactical training also increases. 4.Intellectual preparation Intellectual preparation of a sportsperson in done through imparting scientific knowledge of theory of sports training. The sportsperson is to be encouraged to study literature on modern training means and methods and also modern techniques. An urge has to be created in the sportsperson to continue training and also develop a positive attitude towards hard training. Availability of sports talent, application of appropriate means and methods to identify talent and presence of technical persons who are aware of the scientific methodology to groom the talent are the important pre-requisites in case an Institution or a Country even thinks of having sports teams or sportspersons who can match the national and international standards. In order to win sheer talent is not enough. Talent alone contributes to about 30% performance and the remaining 70% comes from effective and well-organized scientific training. The famous adage ‘catch them young and coach them right’ supports the above view. Many potential children who had all the pre-requisites and the desire to become high performance sportspersons failed to attain heights solely because they had not been scientifically groomed. Since sports training has become very complex, a coach has to have a very sound knowledge of Science of Sports Training so that he is in a position to tackle varied problems confronted by sportspersons. The problems faced by players are diverse and unless the coach is aware of the modern principles of sports training he would not be able to do justice with his position. In view of the above, a very important task of the coach is to identify potential sportspersons. For this purpose he is to understand the scientific process of talent search as well as to get familiar with the scientific process underlying their proper grooming. The three steps for talent identification and their development are: 1. The first step is to locate children who are suitable for sports. 2. The second step, which comes after 2 to 3 years of training aims at finding out children who are talented for a group of sports. 3. The third step, which comes after about 2 to 3 years of training aims at identifying talent for a single sport or for one or two events. A sound knowledge of Science of Sports Training comes very handy in the above process.  Relationship of science of sports training to other sports science disciplines Sports Biomechanics Sports Medicine Exercise Physiology Sport Sociology Sport Management Sport Psychology SCIENCE OF Motor Learning SPORTS TRAINING Sports Journalism Sports Biochemistry Sports Nutrition Science of sports training occupies a very significant place among all the sports science disciplines and functions as a bridge between different games and sports and various branches of sports science. Importance of Sports Training This important discipline of sports science deals with understanding, application and formulation of general principles of sports training as applicable to all games and sports as well as specific theory and methods of training applicable to a specific sport. Therefore, this important area of sports science has both, the general as well as the specific aspect. 1. In as much as sports training is an educational process, it contributes to development of personality of the sportspersons. 2. Sports training acts as a bridge between games and sports and different disciplines of sports science so that the coaches may derive maximum benefit from all sports science disciplines. In addition, it assists the coaches in designing the training process on the basis of the following training principles i) Pedagogical principles ii) Physiological principles iii) Psychological principles iv) Mechanical principles 3. It acts as a filter and interpreter for the exchange of knowledge between different games and sports and sports science and also helps in creating a positive environment where all the resource persons could work together for achieving the goal. 4. It helps in the development of theories and methods of sports training so that a constant rise in performance can be ensured. 5. It helps in planning and preparation of long and short term training programmes (Training schedules) 6. It assists in understanding the relative value of different components of motor fitness in enhancing performance in different games and sports and economizing the process of their development. 7. The knowledge of this discipline has helped in the selection of appropriate methods of improving different components of motor fitness commensurating with age and sex. 8. It helps in computation of target training zones and understanding the process of adaptation to training loads. 9. It helps in working out load-recovery ratio. 10. It assists in the periodization of training time and selection of appropriate type of periodization depending upon the nature and frequency of competition. 11. It helps in understanding the concept of skill acquisition and methods of skill training. 12. It helps in understanding of tactical concepts and their application during competition. 13. It contributes a great deal in the identification of talent. 14. It helps in pointing out the importance of competition in training and its role in enhancing performance. 15. It helps in the organization of training session. 16. To help in monitoring and evaluation of training process. and assists the coaches by way of examining all the training variables right from goal setting to achievement of result and help in re-designing the training plan at the earliest, if necessary. It also help the coaches in conducting specific laboratory test and their after interpret the results of the findings so as to translate the findings to the sportspersons. This process will help in ensuring better linkage between the coaches and the sports scientists. Characteristics of Sports Training 1. Sports training is referred to individual high performance in a particular sport. In case a sportsperson has to keep pace at which the performance at national and international levels is improving, he cannot afford to focus attention on more than one game or sport. The training schedules are sport specific and in each training unit considerable amount of time is to be spent for training essential components of high performance related to a sport. However in track and field and swimming a sportsperson may train for more than one event especially where the pre- requisites of high performance are common. 2. Sports training in an individual process. It is an accepted fact that no two individuals are alike and their abilities and capacities vary. Sportspersons differ in age, training age, state of health, load-taking capacity, pace of recovery, type of constitution and nerves, and in several other factors, which influence training. In view of the above, the training load is to be prescribed for each sportsperson individually. The principle is that players of a team may train collectively as far as possible but undertake calculated loads individually, as necessary. 3. Sports training requires a sports life corresponding to the demands of competitive sport. The training programme of sportspersons shall be so designed that they learn to face the high demands of the competition. The sportspersons have to develop such characteristics that they adapt themselves quickly to competitive situations and are able to perform well. 4. Sports training is systematic and planned. Systematically planned training programmes only can help a sportsperson to achieve high performance. Unsystematic, confusing and haphazardly planned training schedules will be detrimental to attainment of high standard of sports achievement. 5. Sports training is scientific. Sports training programme are scientific in nature and they incorporate findings of the latest researches and reject training methods and means, which get out-dated. Sports training programmes should mirror latest trends and developments in the field of sports training so as to ensure attainment of optimum performance in sports. 6. Sports training calls for high degree of self- reliance on the part of the sportsperson. The sports training programmes are designed in a way that each sportsperson develops self confidence and starts relying on one-self rather than depending on spoon feeding by the coach. The coach acts as a leader who guides and assists the sportsperson in achieving high performance. 7. Sports training is an educational process. As a result of participation in systematically planned sports training programmes, the sportsperson develops an all-round personality and thus becomes capable of attaining high performance. In fact development of wholesome personality and improvement of sports performance are related to each other and are interdependent. Through regular participation in  properly supervised training schedules, the sportsperson learns to control emotions, learns the qualities of sportsmanship, learns to spend the leisure time in a worthwhile manner and also develops regularity, sincerity, hard work and positive attitude towards life. Principles of Sports Training Principles of sports training are the guiding factors for proper development and effective implementation of sports training. The coaches, physical educators and sportspersons have to adhere to these principles so as to have optimal benefit from the time and effort spent in training. The following principles of sports training should be kept in mind: 1. The Principle of Uninterrupted Training The sports training continues from day to day, week to week, month to month and from year to year. Interrupted training programmes do not guarantee attainment of high performance goals and thus lead to decline in performance capacity. Measured and calculated breaks in training are administered to ensure proper recovery but long breaks interfere with performance. 2. The Principle of Steadily Increasing Load The training load should be gradually increased in order to improve performance. Performance capacity of a sportsperson gets enhanced as a result of adaptation to training loads. If this process of increase in performance is to be kept as a continuous process, the training load needs to be increased as soon as the process of adaptation to load is complete. Repeating same load for a very long period causes a load to lose  its effectiveness. When a sportsperson continually undertakes same training load, there is an initial increase in performance, to a certain level and then the sportsperson remains at that level. Once the body has adapted to a particular training load adaptation ceases. Similarly, if the training loads are too far apart, the sportsperson’s performance level would keep returning to original levels. Widely placed loading will produce little or no performance improvement. 3. The Principle of Individual Load The training programmes need to be formulated keeping in mind certain individualistic characteristics namely biological and chronological age; training age; training state; talent, psychological factors like personality; intelligence; temperament, social and economical factors, total load taking capacity and possibility to recover. Adherence to this principle ensures maximum benefit to a sportsperson. 4. The Interval Principle For the training load to be effective, every phase of load shall be followed by a measured period of recovery. Maximum adaptation occurs only when there is a proper proportion between phases of load and recovery. Phases of recovery, which are longer or shorter than what is actually needed in proportion to load administered, make the training loads ineffective. 5. The Principle of Active Participation The performance of a sportsperson is the result of the combination of a sportsperson’s efforts and the coach’s skill. Unless the coach and sportsperson work together successful training  programme cannot be developed. In view of this the sportsperson shall also be active participant of the planning group entrusted with the responsibility of formulation of training programme. Sportsperson will be more sincere and meticulous in completing training schedules in each training unit when he himself actively participated in planning. 6. The Principle of Use of Critical Loads In order to prepare a sportsperson to meet the unforeseen higher demands of competition, the training process shall include administration of critical load (loads which are higher than the loads normally administered) four to five times in a year. In order to ensure proper recovery the principle of proper proportion between phases of load and recovery shall be kept in mind. 7. The Principle of General and Special Preparation This principle states that specific training loads produce specific response and adaptation. The training load must be specific to the individual sportsperson as well as to the demands of the sport for which one trains. In addition, in every training unit the sportsperson shall carry out both general as well as special preparation. General preparation creates a base over which special preparation can be done to enhance performance. General preparation shall always precede special preparation. 8. The Principle of Clarity To enable a sportsperson to have optimal benefit from sports training programme, information about technique, tactics and other aspects of training performance shall be clearly given. The  training programmes will lose effectiveness if instructions are vague. 9. The Principle of Cyclic Process of Training The time available for training is to be formulated in the form of training cycles of shorter and longer duration. During these cycles, the important features of outer training load are administered in a way that high performance results. The three popular cycles of training are: i) Macro Cycle The duration of this cycle is 3 to 12 months and thus is considered as the longest cycle of training. ii) Meso Cycle The duration of this cycle is 3 to 6 weeks and thus is considered as the training cycle of medium duration. iii) Micro Cycle: The duration of this cycle is 3 to 10 days and thus is considered as the training cycle of shortest duration. In macro cycle, the last meso cycle; in the meso cycle, the last micro cycle; and in micro cycle, the last session of training are formulated to guarantee recovery and relaxation. 10. The Principle of Variety In as much as sports training is a long term process, undertaking same load and recovery can lead to boredom for the sportsperson as well as the coach. Therefore in order to sustain interest and motivation the coach should include variety in the training programme. Variety in training can  be ensured by doing cross training i.e. participating in other sports, changing the nature of exercise, the environment, time of the day of session and the training group. This principle depends more on the creativeness of the coach. 11. The Principle of Reversibility The supercompensation effect brought about by regular training is not permanent. In case there is a break in training, the adaptation process also breaks and the fitness level or the performance of a sportsperson returns slowly to the original level. 12. The Principle of Ensuring Results The sports training programmes shall be so formulated that the attainment of training tasks is ensured. After spending time and effort, if a sportsperson fails to attain performance, he might start losing contact with training programmes and also lose confidence in the coach. Systematization of Sports Training Process The Systematization of training process of a sportsperson begins with the basic training and ends with the attainment of high performance. In view of the above, the following three levels of sportspersons are covered under this process. 1. Beginner 2. Advanced (Intermediate) level and 3. High Performance level This process begins at the age of 10 to 12 years and continues until the achievement of performance comparable to national and international standards. Actual duration of training differs from sport to sport and depends upon the nature of the activity. In speed dominated sports the total training process is shorter whereas in sports dominated by strength and endurance, sportsperson needs much longer period of training in order to attain optimal level of performance. Keeping in mind the above three categories of sportspersons, sports training at each level is classified as follows: 1. Basic Training 2. Advanced (Intermediate) level and 3. High Performance level 1. Basic Training (a) It is a general long-term preparation of a sportsperson and in addition it also aim at development of qualities of character and will. (b) Tasks to be fulfilled (i) Consolidation of health (ii) Development of basic physical abilities by means of many-sided physical training. All the motor qualities are to be equally developed. (iii) To develop rough form pertaining to skills of a sport or an event. (iv) To provide competitive experience so as to enable a sportsperson to learn how to react and behave in a competition. (c) Content of training (i) A variety of training methods and means should be adopted so as to ensure all- round general development of athletic ability of a sportsperson. (ii) To select and perform exercises from other games and sports. A javelin thrower may  participate in volleyball and handball in view of similarity in the motor action and motor components to be developed. (iii) Equal selection and application of exercises for development of different motor abilities. (iv) The ratio between general and specific training means should be 70:30. (d) Beginning and end of this stage: Basic training is started at the age of 10 to 12 years and the duration of this stage is 3 to 4 years. 2. Advanced Training (a) Aim The qualities, which the sportsperson has developed during the basic training, are to be further developed and consolidated. The level of motor qualities and motor skills is to be improved. The qualities of character and will are to be adapted to higher motor abilities and skills. The requirements in training become higher in view of increase in the load of training. Participation in competition is to be increased. Sportsperson lays stress on the sport in which he is going to specialize. (b) Tasks to be fulfilled (i) Further consolidation and strengthening of health. In view of increased training load, the health is likely to be affected. (ii) Further development of motor abilities by adopting training means of a specialized sport. (iii) Development of technique up to final form. (iv) Readiness to undertake risk. (v) Development of self-reliance. (c) Content of training  (i) General and specific training means and method are applied. (ii) Training means of supplementary sports are applied in order to improve the motor qualities of a specialized sport. (iii) The ratio between the general and specific training means should be 60:40 or 50:50. (d) Beginning and end of this stage The beginning of advanced training depends upon the performance reached by the sportsperson at the end of basic training and also on the rate of development of the physical and psychic qualities of the sportsperson. The duration of this phase of training is 2 to 4 years. The actual duration of this phase depends upon the performance reached by the sportsperson at the end of the training period. The sportsperson should attain average or even above average performance in the chosen sport. 3. High Performance Training (a) Aim To reach optimal performance standard in the chosen sport, which is comparable to national and international standards. The sportsperson should attain high performance efficiency at the time of national or international championship. The sportsperson should develop good behaviour and positive attitude so as to be a good example for the youngsters. (b) Tasks to be fulfilled (i) The motor qualities specific to the chosen sport are to be developed to optimal level. (ii) The general condition is to be developed in accordance with the specific requirements of the chosen sport. The level of specific  qualities, to a great extent depends upon the general condition of the sportsperson. (iii) The sports form should be developed in a way that it remains stable under the stress of competition. (iv) The qualities of character and will must be accomplished under high competitive requirements. (c) Content of training (i) The selection and application of training methods and means depend upon the aim of high performance training and also on the individual characteristics of the sportsperson. (ii) The ratio of general and specific training depends upon the chosen sport and also on the strong and weak point of the sportsperson. The ratio of 70:30 or 80:20 or 90:10 in favour of specific training is found suitable. (d) Beginning and end of this stage The beginning of the training period depends upon the performance reached in the chosen sport at the end of advanced training. The duration of this phase depends upon the rate at which the sportsperson develops and attain performance comparable to national and international standards. Important Ingredients for Improving the Standard of Sports In case a country decides to enhance the standard of sports, the following important ingredients are to be given due consideration: 1. Sportspersons: It is to be ensured that the sportspersons identified has the potential to  become a high sports performer. This can be ascertained by assessing the general motor ability of the selected individuals. In addition due consideration is also to be given to the coordinative abilities possessed by the sportsperson. 2. Coach: In as much as sports training has become a complex process, the coach must possess requisite knowledge and the technical skills to groom the talent of the selected potential sportspersons. In order to render the best possible help, he has to be abreast with latest trends and developments in the field of his specialization. 3. Teacher: Sports training is an educational process. Besides shaping a child as a sportsperson, due consideration is to be given to the academic performance. The emphasis should be on producing literate sportspersons. Intellectual development of the sportsperson is important to enable him to become a high sports performer. 4. Sports Scientists: The coach alone is not in a position to solve varied problems faced by the sportsperson. In view of this, depending upon the nature of problem, a team of sports science experts is needed to take care of different problems experienced by the sportspersons. The team of experts will comprise of exercise physiologist, sport psychologists, sports bio- mechanist, sports physician, sports sociologist, sports nutritionist, kinanthropomist and the like. 5. Organizers: A team of organizers is needed to look after varied aspects of high performance of the sportsperson. This may include managers, technical officials, trainers etc. 6. Friendly Family Towards Sports: Support of the parents and other family members goes a long ways in helping the sportspersons to attain high performance. 7. Policy: The country needs a policy, which would provide full support to the sportsperson. In the policy special provisions are to be made in order to eliminate all kinds of hurdles, which might interfere in his progress. 8. Equipment and Facilities: A proper sports infrastructure fitted with all modern facilities is needed for a sportsperson. Equipments with proper specifications are to be made available. 9. Finance: Availability of funds is a very important pre-requisite. Every thing needed by the sportsperson revolves around the funds. 10. Competitions: Sufficient number of competitions should be organized in order to see the extent to which the training has been helpful. In fact competition is a great motivating factor for a sportsperson because during the competition he would try to put up his best performance. 11. Support from Government: The government should provide wholehearted support to the sportspersons by way of providing funds, facilities, equipment etc. 12. Sponsors: Since government alone will not be able to meet the needs of the sportspersons, support from the sponsors would be of a great help to the sportspersons.  Chapter 2 Training Load Of all the principles of sports training, the principle of training load and administering recovery in proportion to that is the most important and any mistake in adhering to this principle will prevent the sportsperson from attaining high performance. The training state of a sportsperson develops as a result of application of motor stimulus (movement) resulting in improvement and maintenance of performance capacity. In addition to improvement of performance, the training loads also facilitate maintenance and stabilization of performance capacity. Loads are also administered sometimes for the purpose of bringing about recovery and that is why the training loads are termed as fatigue producing and non-fatigue producing. Sports training process involves activities and movements, which generally lead to fatigue. Fatigue is the direct product of load caused by physical activity or exercise. Fatigue is essential for improving the performance capacity of a sportsperson. Training load therefore is of central importance in sports training. Definition of Training Load Physiological and psychological demands placed on the individual through motor stimulus (movement) resulting in improvement and maintenance of performance capacity. The training load is of two types namely- i) Outer load and ii) Inner load  The following figure will provide a complete concept of various features of training load. Factors of (Features) of Training Load Training Load Outer Load Inner Load Quality of Physical Intensity Volume Symptoms: Sweating, Movement Exercise of Load of Load Colour of Skin, Fatigue (visible), Quality of Movement, Lack of Concentration and Loss of Co-ordination. Intensity of Duration of Stimulus Stimulus Density of Frequency of Stimulus Stimulus The outer load refers to type of physical exercise, quality of exercise execution, intensity of load (intensity and density) and volume of load (duration and frequency) of motor stimulus and the inner load is the reaction of the individual caused by these four load factors.. 1. Quality of Movement The quality of movement performed by a sportsperson has direct influence on training load. In the process of technical and tactical perfection, the quality of movement is an important factor of load. By enhancing the degree of difficulty of movement execution, the training load can be considerably increased. Since quality of movement is a subjective factor, its accurate measurement is difficult. 2. Physical Exercise According to their effects; the physical exercise have been classified as general, special and competitive. They are considered as the most important means of training. Each exercise, depending upon the body parts involved, the co- ordination required and the opportunities used, produces a different type of load and hence different effect on performance capacity of a sportsperson. 3. Intensity of Load (Load Intensity) It represents the degree of effort made by the sportsperson while performing an exercise. The degree of effort is always considered in relation to time and is equated with the amount of force or energy spent in relation to time. It is divided into intensity of stimulus (movement intensity) and density of stimulus (load density). 4. Volume of Load (Load Volume) It is the total amount of work done while performing an exercise or in a training session. Volume of load can be classified into duration of stimulus (movement duration) and frequency of stimulus (movement frequency). The intensity of stimulus can be described by speed in a cyclic exercise, amount of load during muscle strength exercise, the pace of bout or a game and frequency of movement (skipping). The intensity of stimulus is always expressed in percentage in relation to the maximum possible intensity (100%). Exercise with maximum intensity lead to development of speed, maximum strength, explosive strength and speed endurance whereas lower intensity facilitates active recovery.  The density of stimulus refers to the duration of recovery phases between two motor stimuli and sets of motor stimuli. It is also termed as the ratio between the phases of load and recovery. The duration of stimulus represents time of influence of one stimulus or a set of stimuli e.g. lifting time in strength training exercise (weight training), distance run in a running activity (interval running). The frequency of stimulus is the number of times an exercise or a movement is repeated. Components of Training Load and their Indices Outer load (Training Requirements) Intensity of Density of Frequency of Duration of Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus  Intensity of  Expresses  Number of  Duration of effect motor the repetitions of one stimulus stimulus e.g. relationship per set  Duration of one speed, of the  Number of set of stimuli distance, effective time sets (weight training) height, of loading and  Number of  Duration of one magnitude of the total repetitions phase of load resistance duration of per training (expressed by the (kg) training unit unit (all sets) distance in case of  Frequency  Ratio  Number of cyclic exercise) of movement between loads for  Duration of the  Pace of a phase of load various training unit game and phase of muscle  Training hours  Pace of a recovery groups per year. bout  Components of Training Load, Effect and Correlation Outer load (Training Requirements) Intensity of Density of Frequency of Duration of Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus  Influences  It is  Depends  Influences the pace of subordinate to upon intensity along with development intensity and of stimulus other and the duration of  Depends components the stability of stimulus upon duration effect of adaptation  It is of stimulus training on the  When fixing determined by  Incase sportsperson. the intensity the task of the intensity and of stimulus, training density of take the session stimulus are following  Interval is higher, the factors into longer incase frequency of consideration: the intensity stimulus is - Functional stimulus is lower and higher and the  Frequency of morphologic duration of training per adaptations stimulus is week for: - Technical longer. Beginner: 3-5 level  Optimum Advanced: 6-8 - Tactical density of Top level: 9-12 skills stimulus - guarantees Psychological efficiency of condition loading and - Health and prevents functional premature state exhaustion The training loads are termed as both fatigue producing as well as non-fatigue producing. The coach has to systematically monitor the four important features of outer training load namely intensity of stimulus, density of stimulus, duration of stimulus and frequency of stimulus so as to produce maximum training effect on the sportsperson. During the training session, the coach has to look for the symptoms of inner load (sweating, colour of the skin, visible fatigue, loss of concentration, loss of coordination etc.). It is important for a coach to understand the role of the symptoms of inner load. The inner load not only helps to control the outer load but also plays an important role in determining the effectiveness of the training load. In addition it helps the coach in ascertaining whether his training load and recovery are in proper proportion. Limbering down is as important as warming up. Both these processes involve training load and these are non- fatigue producing. Warming up prepares the body for the ensuing physical activity whereas limbering down in done for accelerating recovery. Principles of Intensity of Stimulus 1. Stimulus intensity less than 30% has no development effect. 2. In a cyclic endurance exercise, the speed should be such that it brings noteworthy effect on the heart and circulatory system. 3. Only high stimulus intensity creates supercompensation effect in sportspersons. 4. Load of work with high stimulus intensity causes rapid improvement but improved performance is less stable. Therefore, the training shall be extensive in nature. In this the performance improvement is slow but it is more stable. Principles of Volume of Stimulus 1. The does of stimulus volume should be such that the sportsperson is able to perform to the best of his capacity in each training unit. 2. The does of stimulus volume should be such that visible symptoms of tiredness are seen. 3. Stimulus volume should be gradually increased even after having trained for a certain period. 4. Volume of training should always be in harmony with frequency of training. Frequency of training depends upon the kind of sport, condition and training state of the sportsperson. With the increase in training age, the frequency of training shall be increased. Training frequency for a 3 to 5 training units per beginner week Training frequency for an 6 to 8 training units per intermediate level week sportsperson Training frequency for a 8 to 12 training units per high performance week sportsperson The training state of a sportsperson improves if he trains more frequently, provided the stimulus in terms of intensity and volume is effective. Adaptation Process In literal sense the word adaptation means to get adjusted with. The human organism possesses the ability to get adjusted (adapted) to the environment and as the environmental conditions change, the human organism also changes in the due course. This process of adaptation is also applicable to the field of sports training. The human organism changes to a new state of performance efficiency as a result of administration of external load. In fact load and adaptation go side by side. This process of adaptation is a bio-chemical process and is applicable to improvement of conditional abilities (strength, speed endurance) only. As the sportsperson is exposed to the training and competition demands, this results in disturbance of the homeostasis (internal body balance). The sportsperson makes and effort to restore the state of homeostasis by causing the different systems and bodily functions to adjust to the state of disturbance. In case the bodily homeostasis is disturbed again and again for a certain period of time than the human body responds by causing structural and metabolic changes, which enable the body to withstand the load more easily. This is called adaptation. As a result of training, the sportsperson also acquires technical mastery, but the process of acquiring skills is different from that of developing conditional abilities. In each training unit, the sportsperson performs different forms of physical exercises and these exercises put different demands on the sportsperson. All the physiological systems of the body work in a coordinated manner to cope-up with these demands. Efficient and smooth movements are facilitated by the contraction of muscles in a coordinated manner. For movement, energy is required which is released by the breakdown of energy substances. As the physical activity continues, the amount of energy substances decline. Enzymes and hormones are involved in the acceleration of energy liberation process and gradually get depleted. There is a wear and tear of muscle contractile substances and continuation of activity ultimately leads to fatigue. During the recovery phase, all the substances, which were depleted, are restored. As a result of this, the performance level improves as compared to the pre- activity level. This is termed as supercompensation. This state of supercompensation is a temporary process and lasts for some hours after which it disappears and reappears again after few hours with a diminished level. This level of performance lasts for some time and again disappears. It goes like a wave, which goes on diminishing until it finally vanishes. The first phase of supercompensation, when improvement is maximum needs to be consolidated and is the most favourable time for the next training load to be administered. Therefore, the training load is to be administered regularly and repeated for 10 to 20 days for occurrence of stable adaptation so as to create a new level of proficiency. A training load, which has produced supercompensation effect, is termed as a standard load and a standard load cannot further improve the training state of the sportsperson. After the occurrence of supercompensation, the load should be increased during the next adaptation phase. Complete technical and tactical mastery are important pre-requisites for a sportsperson. Unless the fundamental skills of a sport are learnt, physical and motor fitness alone would not help in putting up good sports performance. In view of this the coach has to understand the process of adaptation to training loads for the enhancement of conditional abilities namely strength, speed and endurance and as well as he has to develop a very clear concept regarding the process of skill acquisition. Both these processes enhance sports performance but they occur differently. Numerous training means and methods are available for the development of various motor components. The choice depends upon the age and training age of the sportsperson. A coach has to have a very clear concept about each of them. In order to acquire complete tactical mastery, the coach has to be well aware of different methods of tactical training. For adaptation to training load the following three conditions are to be fulfilled. 1. Training load has to be as per the loading capacity of sportsperson. 2. Recovery period should be in proportion to the training load. 3. Loading and recovery process is to be repeated for a certain period of time (10 to 20 days). Effect of one training schedule on performance Phase of Supercompensation Phase of Phase of Load Recovery Effect of regular training on performance Phase of Supercompensation Phase of Phase of Load Recovery Fig. 3. Adaptation to training loads Linear increase Increasing load in the in load form of staircase Fig.4. Procedure of increasing training load  The procedure of linear increasing in load is adopted only for 2 to 3 weeks as a part of basic training of a beginner. Thereafter the training load is increased in the form of staircase the method of increasing load in the form of staircase facilitates adaptation to training load before the training load is increased. Conditions of Adaptation To ensure effectiveness of training load is each training unit, the following conditions of adaptation are to be strictly adhered to: 1. Adaptation is maximum when the training load is given on individual performance basis. To enable a sportsperson to have optimal benefit from training, the loads shall be administered keeping in mind the specific characteristic of an individual. 2. There should be a correct proportion between intensity and volume of training load. Intensity of stimulus has an inverse relationship with volume of stimulus. Intensity of Load Volume of Load Volume of Load Intensity of Load 3. The adaptation process is the result of correct proportion between phases of load and recovery. The following diagrams (Fig.) illustrate the effect of training on performance under different conditions of proportion between phase of load and recovery.  LOAD RECOVERY RELATIONSHIP Phase of super compensation New PL Gradual increase in performance Normal PL Load Recovery Proper relationship between phases of load and recovery Gradual decline in performance Normal PL Load Recovery Improper relationship between load and recovery- longer recovery than required Improper relationship between load and recovery-longer recovery than required Normal PL Gradual decline in performance Load Recovery Improper relationship between load and recovery-very high load and short recovery 4. High load is essential for optimum adaptation. Training effect occurs only if the load is high enough to produce symptoms of fatigue. High load leads to high adaptation, medium load causes medium adaptation and low load brings about low adaptation. 5. For a beginner application of a new or an unfamiliar exercise or load creates a quick supercompensation effect. Adaptation process occurs faster in the case of beginners where as among high performance sportspersons, for adaptation to be complete, it may take much longer period. In order to avoid muscle memory, the exercises should be varied. If the same exercise or the sequence of exercises is repeatedly performed, their training effect reduces because they lead to muscle memory. 6. Long interval in training or reduction in training load breaks the adaptation process. Adaptation effect achieved as result of training is not permanent. The level of various conditional abilities declines if there is a long break in training. In view of this long transitional periods are not recommended. OVER LOAD The normal development of training state of a sportsperson is disturbed when the physical and psychic daily load of life exceeds the loading capacity of the individual. Over loads, administered over a longer period of time, lead to decreased performance capacity. Modern sports scientists consider the over loading phenomenon as disturbance in the normal nervous activity. Performance in sports is not only a matter of muscular on metabolic efficiency but it mainly depends upon the efficiency of the nervous system. When nervous system gets disturbed, the optimum utilization of energy and metabolic process also gets disturbed. The other systems of the body are also unable to perform to the best of their efficiency. An excessive training load causes incomplete adaptation and the sportsperson will have problems with recovery from the training stimulus. These problems with recovery can also be cumulative. This occurs when the loading is repeatedly too great or too closely spaced. The decline in performance caused by incomplete adaptation in one of the most obvious symptoms of overtraining. In this situation the coach must allow time for proper recovery and should evaluate and reduce the training loads used. Stimulus Overcompensation Fatigue Compensation Proper load Over load Over loading is of two types 1. Dominance of excitation process This state occurs when the training load is increased suddenly without adequate preparation. 2. Dominance of relaxation process This state results when the over does of training load is administered continuously over a longer period of time. Causes of Over Loading The main cause which lead to over loading can be discussed under the following four categories: 1. Faulty Training Method a) Neglect of recovery process b) Rapid increase in the training load thus adaptation does not take place. c) High volume of load with maximum or sub- maximum intensity. d) Forced technical training involving complicated movements without adequate rest. e) Excess of competition with high demands. f) One sided training. 2. Life Factors a) Insufficient night rest b) Irregular daily routine c) Luxurious daily routine d) Indulgence in alcohol and nicotine e) Bad living conditions f) Faulty leisure time activity g) Quarrel in the family or the community 3. Social Factors a) Excess of engagements b) Friction in the family c) Unsatisfied profession or studies d) Misunderstanding with colleagues  e) Over loading in professional work, studies etc. f) An unfriendly family towards sports g) Excess of entertainment programmes 4. Health Factors a) Fever b) Bad stomach c) Infectious disease d) Injuries Symptoms of Over Load The symptoms of over load are grouped as follows and they also appear in the same order: 1. Psychological symptoms a) Increased excitability b) Tendency toward hysteria c) Quarrelsome d) Less contact with the coach e) Increased sensitivity towards criticism f) Depression g) Indifferent h) Loss of confidence i) Loss of motivation 2. Performance Symptoms a) Increased error in technique b) Decreased concentration c) Decreased differentiation ability d) Decrease in strength, speed and endurance abilities e) Slow recovery f) Decreased competition readiness g) Increased tendency to surrender to competition  h) Uncontrolled behaviour in competition 3. Somatic-Functional Symptoms a) Loss of sleep b) Loss of appetite c) Loss of weight d) Disturbance in digestion e) Frequent giddiness f) Susceptibility to injuries How to Tackle Over Load (Remedies) Tackling of over load is not an easy task. The coach, sportsperson, sports doctor and sports psychologist should work together to tackle this serious problem. The following suggestions may be adopted. 1. The coach should recognize the state of over loading as early as possible by carefully observing the sportsperson during each training session. The coach should look for the psychological symptoms because they are the first to appear. 2. As soon as the coach is convinced that there are signs of over loading, the following four things should be done: a) The training load should be considerably reduced. b) Additional means i.e. good diet, physiotherapy, massage and general exercise should be adopted to accelerate recovery. c) Guidance of sports doctor, sports psychologist or any other expert be sought. d) Meeting with parents or other important persons be arranged. 3. Competition and trials be avoided. 4. The coach, with the help of friends, colleagues, parents, sports doctor and sports psychologist should make sincere effort to find out the real causes of over loading. 5. Over loading causes should be tackled by modifying training. 6. The training should be restarted with a revised plan. Judgement of Training Load Performance of a sportsperson improves as a result of application of training load. the frequency of training of a sportsperson depends upon the training age and performance level. A beginner trains 3 to 5 times per week whereas a high performer trains 8 to 12 or even more times in a week. In order to ensure that the load of training in a training unit guarantees development of performance, the load has to be properly controlled and regulated. Today, it is possible to correctly plan training load for a sportsperson by working out ‘Target Training Zones’ keeping in mind his age and resting heart rate. The judgement of training load can be done using the following means: Objective Means The objective means of judgement of training load involve assessment of physiological and bio-mechanical variables during and immediately after the training schedule. Some of the objective means of judgement of load, which can be effectively used by a coach, are as follows: 1. Body weight 2. Heart rate 3. Intensity of training load 4. Volume of training load 5. VO2 max. 6. Blood lactate 7. Blood urea 8. Lon concentration (Acid-Base Balance) 9. Electrolyte concentration 10. PO2 and PCO2 in blood 11. Blood enzymes (SGOT and SGPT) 12. ATP and CP concentration 13. Glucose and fatty acids 14. Hormonal level e.g. glucogon, insulin and thyroxin. The coach can do measurement in respect of some of the variables; however, in respect of others the coach has to depend upon the specialist. Due to the following reasons, the objective means for judgement of training load are to be cautiously used. 1. Most of the objective means indicate effect produced by the load on a specific organ or a system and not the whole body 2. Most of the objective means are associated with speed and endurance training. 3. As on date reliable objective means for judging the psychological aspects of load are not available. Subjective Means Since objective means of judgement of load need specialized equipment/apparatus and scientific procedure4s, the coach has to invariably rely on the subjective means. The accuracy with which subjective means can be used for judgement of training load depends upon: a) Observational ability of the coach. b) Knowledge of the coach with respect of various sports science. c) Knowledge of the coach with respect to likely- effect of various training means and methods. d) Experience of the coach. e) Thorough knowledge about sportsperson’s behaviour. f) Knowledge about the personality of sportsperson. The amount and type of training load depends upon the effects desired. Administration of optimum load causes fatigue and if fatigue can be correctly measured during and after training, the degree of load can be correctly assessed. Since fatigue cannot be directly assessed, the effect of training load has to be judged through its symptoms, which are as follows: a) Colour of the skin b) Sweating c) Loss of concentration d) Loss of co-ordination e) Psychic factors e.g. readiness or preparedness, general feeling, general expression, confidence etc. In order to correctly and reliably judge load the coach should rely on more than one symptom of fatigue. Some of the symptoms namely sweating and colour of the skin are not very reliable skin of the sportsperson and, therefore, are to be cautiously used. While judging the effect of load, the personality and behaviour of the sportsperson may be kept in mind. Response of the sportsperson to load depends upon these two factors. Recovery  Both, training and competition loads enhance sports performance. In the process of long-term training, the quantum of load is gradually increased and this leads to improved performance. A beginner adapts to training load faster whereas with the increase in training age, higher loads are administered and this results in slower increase in performance. Sportspersons cannot effectively undertake very high loads of training unless proper means are adopted to accelerate the process of recovery. Administering appropriate means can ensure quicker recovery and make a sportsperson capable of undertaking more frequent loads. Recovery from training and competition loads requires considerable amount of time. Recovery can be divided into following three phases: Phase I In this phase the onset of fatigue and recovery go on simultaneously i.e. when the training or competition is in progress? This process occurs because of resynthesis of ATP, CP, and glycogen and to some extent because of neutralization of lactic acid. Those activities, which continue for a long duration and those sports, which are played for a considerable period, the pace of recovery in this phase plays an important role. Recovery during this phase, to a large extent, depends upon functional capacity and efficiency of different systems and their organs. Phase II This phase commences with the completion of the training schedule (cessation of physical activity) and ends with the restoration of homeostasis of the body. This phase lasts from few minutes to 2 to 3 hours. The following active recovery means can be adapted to make the recovery process faster. 1. Deep breathing exercises 2. Intake of drinks containing carbohydrates, vitamins, salts and minerals. Phase III The duration of this phase of recovery can last from many hours to several days. In this phase, the anabolic process facilitates the recovery. Substances such as enzymes and proteins, which get depleted in the process of undertaking the load, get resynthesised. Factors Affecting Pace of Recovery The pace of recovery is affected by the following factors: 1. Stimulus Intensity and Stimulus Volume (Factors of Load). Recovery after loads dominated by intensity is quicker whereas it takes longer time when extensive loads (loads dominated by volume) are administered. Intensive loads lead to quicker onset of fatigue but after the cessation of load, recovery is also faster. 2. Types of Training Load In order to improve different aspects of sports form, different types of loads are administered. Recovery is faster in the case of those loads where ATP and CP are used for energy production. Loads, which involve depletion of glycogen stores, recovery may take from almost 10 hours to two days. Recovery after strength loads may take 1-2 days or even longer. 3. Health and Fitness Status  In order to attain faster recovery, health and fitness of a sportsperson are important factors. Healthy and physically fit persons recover faster from fatigue caused by the training loads. 4. Rest and Sleep Proper rest and sound sleep of 7 to 8 hours ensures complete recovery. In addition to physical and physiological recovery, sleep also helps in psychic recovery. 5. Good Diet Good diet containing all important nutrients namely carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water in required quantities is essential for faster recovery. Intake of nutrients such as carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals (sodium and potassium) in liquid from can facilitate quick recovery. Intake of food at fixed hours and proper eating habits also ensure faster recovery. 6. Daily Routine Proper control has to be exercised on daily routine so as to ensure recovery from fatigue. If the biological clock is disturbed by making frequent changes in the daily routine, the recovery process is adversely affected. 7. Total Load of the Day In addition to training and competition loads there are many other factors namely academic pursuits (in case sportsperson is studying) professional work (in case sportsperson is studying) professional work (in case sportsperson is employed), sharing household work, meeting weather and environmental stresses, injury etc. Which increase the total load of the day. In case the total load goes beyond the loading capacity, the recovery process gets delayed. Means of Recovery The means, which can be effective in accelerating recovery, can be divided into following groups: 1. Training Methodology related means 2. Nutritional means 3. Physio-therapeutic means 4. Psychological means 1. Training methodology related means Among all the four above groups, these means are the most important for ensuring quick recovery. In fact other means of recovery should support the training methodical means. (i) Session of training A training session should be carefully worked out for ensuring recovery. The following factors should be kept in mind. (a) Warm up A good session of warming up is essential for avoiding earlier onset of fatigue. Stretching exercises, which from an essential part of a warm up session are effective in preventing stiffness and soreness in muscles. (b) Exercise sequence The exercises to be performed should be arranged in a sequence so that different muscle groups, organs and systems are stressed in rotation. This sequence can help in delaying the onset of fatigue and quarantines quick recovery. (c) Sequence of performance tasks In addition to exercises, the performance tasks should also be arranged in a sequence. In a training session the speed, co-ordinative abilities and technique should be developed first followed by strength. The endurance training should be at the end of the session. (d) Phases of rest between repetitions of load Between repetitions of load, measured rest periods should be provided in order to make the load effective and also make the sportsperson capable of completing the training schedule. Active rest pauses (doing low intensity exercises during rest pauses) ensure faster recovery. (e) Limbering down Every training session shall end with limbering down (cool down) which should be done for 10 to 20 minutes in order to recover and bring the body back to normal level of functioning. During limbering down, low intensity continuous exercise should be performed so as to quickly remove the metabolic products from muscles and blood. 2. Cyclic Process of Training The year is divided into cycles of training of varying durations. Macro cycle is the longest cycle and its duration is from 3 to 12 months. It is divided into preparatory, competition and transition periods. Transition period of 4 to 6 weeks ensures recovery because during this phase training loads are of low intensity and volume. This phase provides recovery and relaxation of the sportsperson after strenuous training during preparatory and competition periods.  The duration of meso cycle is 3 to 6 weeks. The last week of the meso cycle is devoted for recovery. During the last week the training load is low and general exercises dominate. Micro cycle is the shortest of the three cycles and its duration is normally one week. On the last day of the week complete rest is provided to ensure recovery. During these cycles the training load fluctuates and is applied with certain rhythm. During these cycles the training tasks should be tackled in way that speed and technique come in the beginning and endurance comes at the end. 3. Nutritional Means During and after training and competition nutritional means taken in proper form and required quantity can help in ensuring faster recovery. The sportsperson should take balanced diet, according to the requirements of the body and the sport for which one is training. After every training session light liquid diet containing carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals (sodium and potassium) should be consumed. Intake of drinks with salt added is also recommended if during training session the sportsperson had profuse sweating. It is also advised that meals should be consumed at fixed hours. 4. Physio-therapeutic Means These means are being effectively used for accelerating recovery. Different massage manipulations, sauna, ultra sound therapy, hydrotherapy, electrotherapy etc. are helpful in quick recovery. For these means help of a specialist should be taken in order to avoid problems. These means should be used in addition to means related to training methodology. Avoid using them as substitute means for training methodical means. 5. Psychological Means Over the years, the psychological means have become important in helping sportsperson in attaining faster recovery. Physiological evidences show that the recovery process is controlled by the nervous system of the body and the psychological means help in the voluntary control of this system for attaining quick recovery. Psychological means, like other means can be used during and after training or competition and they can even be used between two training sessions for relaxation and ensuring sound sleep. Some of the important means which are being commonly used by the sportspersons are: (i) different forms of yoga, (ii) autogenous training, (iii) auto-suggestion and (vi) progressive relaxation technique. In order to learn and use these means to the best advantage, the sportsperson may take help of a specialist. After having learnt them correctly, he may independently use them.  Chapter 3 Bio-motor Abilities Complete physical preparation is an important pre-requisite for attaining high performance standard in games and sports. In view of this coaches provide sufficient time in their training schedules for the enhancement of important bio-motor abilities (motor qualities) namely strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and co-ordinative abilities. Strength Speed Endurance Bio-motor Abilities Flexibility Co-ordinative Abilities Through different training means, the above bio- motor abilities can be trained separately as well as in combination with each other. The requirement of these abilities differs from sport to sport and in order to develop these abilities, the sportspersons have regularly participate in general, specific and competitive exercise schedules, which are specific to sport. For example, when a sportsperson works against a resistance, may be resistance of own body, partner, medicine ball, barbell etc. strength is developed. Running at high speed with quick frequency of movement would develop speed. If distance or duration is maximum, the exercise becomes endurance based. Exercises with complex movements involving eye-hands and eye-foot co- ordination contribute to development of co-ordinative abilities. Static and dynamic exercises lead to development of flexibility. Different sports place different demands on the above co-ordinative abilities and therefore the coaches should prepare the training programmes for enhancement of bio-motor abilities keeping the specific demands of the game/sport in mind. Each sportsperson has a unique profile in respect of different bio-motor abilities. In as much as there is a closed relationship between skill performance and performance in respect of various motor abilities, it is important that a coach must understand how to train them as well as how to determine them with the help of different evaluative procedures. Highly talented sportspersons only may posses the various biomotor abilities to optimal level so as to put up a good performance. In fact at the time of talent selection a lot of weightage shall be given to the various biomotor abilities because at that young age children do not have good level of skill. The coaches have a responsibility to identify sports/events for which sportspersons are best suited and to develop in them those motor abilities, which are essential for optimum performance. Sports will require these characteristics in successful performers but the importance of each may vary. For example, the successful 100m runner is a powerful athlete, the gymnast requires flexibility, and the 1500m swimmer relies largely on endurance. In the team sports, depending on the position played, all these characteristics may all be important. In all sports, these physiological capacities will need to be supplemented by a high level of skill and the correct psychological approach to competition. Definitions of Important Motor Abilities 1. Cardio-respiratory Endurance This is the quality that enables one to continue engaging in reasonably vigorous physical activities for extended periods of time where the required cardio-respiratory adjustments to the activity are built up. 2. Muscular Endurance This motor component enables a person to sustain localized muscle group activities for extended periods of time. 3. Strength Strength is the ability of a muscle to get over resistance. 4. Speed Speed is the ability to make rapid movements of the same type in the shortest possible time. 5. Power It is the quality of a muscle to contract forcefully in the quickest possible time. 6. Agility It is the ability of the human body to change direction quickly and effectively. 7. Flexibility It is the ability of a muscle to perform movements with greater range of motion. 8 Co-ordination It is the ability to perform movements of various degrees of difficulty very quickly and with efficiency and accuracy.  Maximum Strength Strength Explosive Endurance Strength Flexibility Coordination Endurance Speed Speed Endurance Inter-relationship of the biomotor abilities  Chapter 3.1 Strength Strength is perhaps the most important motor ability in sports because all movements in sports are caused by muscle contraction. Therefore, strength is a part and parcel of all-motor abilities, technical skills and tactical actions (Uppal, 2000). The development of strength has almost certainly been the greatest factor to enhance performance in sports. But it is not a new concern. Theories of the best way to build up strength date back at least to ancient Greek times, when Milo reputedly carried a bull calf every day from the day it was born until it was fully grown. As the bull grew and became heavier, Milo’s strength levels improved to compensate, in a form of early progressive resistance training (Paish, 1998). Strength alone will not assure success in any sport. It is usable strength that is the key, the strength which can be applied to the body to make it more faster, change speed, change the direction of body movement, put a greater speed into a cricket bat or racket head, or make the pull on an oar faster and longer. Hence, while strength is a dominant factor one must also call upon skill, mobility and speed. A pupil will not be able to hold the tennis racket as instructed if he does not have sufficient strength. How can a pupil learn to pole vault if he cannot hold his own weight? Moreover, lack of sufficient strength results in rapid muscular fatigue, which limits the amount of practice time available for learning skills. Proper muscular development helps to prevent muscular imbalances that may result in compensating movements when a child is attempting to learn new skills. We have all seen injured people favouring their good (strong) sides. A similar compensating mechanism may result if a youngster does not have sufficient strength to hold the tennis racket as instructed. In order to hold the racket he will compensate by calling into play more muscles than would properly be necessary. These compensating mechanisms may result in imbalance, which if not corrected, become progressively more difficult to rectify. Strength is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against resistance (Singh, 1991). Strength has been considered as the most important conditional ability. It has been the most significant factor to enhance sports techniques and performance. Development of strength also contributes to indirect development of other conditional abilities namely speed and endurance. Strength is the most important conditional ability. Development of strength also contributes to indirect improvement of other two conditional abilities i. e. speed and endurance. Strength is produced as a result of contraction of muscle and all movements in sports are caused due to contraction of muscles, therefore strength is important for achieving good performance in sports. Some people have the idea that strength is something needed only by males. The general misconception is that if females work on strength training schedules, they will have bulging muscles. This viewpoint is incorrect. In fact the hormones in the body of the females prevent them from developing bulging muscles. Females who do regular strength training for general fitness development are more likely to develop better contours and look more attractive and beautiful. Definition of Strength Strength is the ability of a muscle to get over resistance. While playing different games and sports, the sportspersons overcome the following four types of resistance: (a) Resistance of equipment (b) Resistance of own body. (c) Resistance of opponent. (d) Frictional resistance. Factors Determining Strength Strength depends upon the following factors: a) Physiological cross-section of the muscle As a result of regular strength training, the diameter of a muscle increases (hypertrophy) and it becomes capable of producing more strength. b) Morphology of the muscle A person with dominance of fast twitch (phasic) muscle fibres can produce more force because fast twitch muscle fibres contract faster. c) Co-ordination of muscles that participate in the movement In every movement, two groups of muscles are involved i.e. agonist and antagonist. When the agonist contacts, the antagonist should completely relax. This co-ordination between the two can result in greater amount of strength. d) Phosphogen store in the body Muscle needs energy for contraction, which comes from the breakdown of phosphogens (ATP and CP). Greater the phosphogen store in the  body, higher will be the production of energy for contraction of muscles. e) Body weight A person with higher body weight is generally considered stronger than the lighter person. The weight categories in combative sports namely wrestling, boxing, judo etc. are based on this philosophy. f) Psychic factors Psychological factors, namely motivation, emotion, anger, aggression etc. have direct bearing on strength performance. Types of Strength (a) Maximum Strength –It is the ability of muscle to get over resistance of maximum intensity of stimulus in a single muscular contraction. The best examples are weight lifting and throwing events (shot, discus and hammer throws in track and field). (b) Explosive Strength –It is the ability of muscle to get over resistance of sub-maximum intensity of stimulus as possible. The best examples are sprints, jumps, smashing in volleyball, hitting in hockey etc. (c) Strength Endurance –It is the ability of muscle to get over resistance of medium intensity of stimulus for as long time as possible. The best examples are long distance races in track and field, swimming, distance cycling, wrestling, boxing etc.  Characteristics of training different forms of strength Type of Intensity Density Frequency Duration Strength Maximum 90-100% 6 to 10 1 to 4 More Strength min. (full recovery Explosive 70-80% 6 to 10 6 to 10 Short Strength min. (full recovery Strength 50% 2 to 4 15 to 30 Short Endurance min Types of Muscle Contraction For the development of strength, the following four types of muscle contractions are utilized: 1. Isotonic, Dynamic or Concentric Contraction In this contraction the muscle shortens with varying tension while lifting a constant load. The literal meaning of the word isotonic is constant tension i.e., iso means constant and tonic means tension. Keeping in mind this meaning of the term, this contraction is expected to produce same amount of tension while contracting as it overcomes same resistance throughout the entire range of movement. But this is not true because the tension produced in the muscle as it shortens is affected by the following three factors: a) Initial length of the muscle fibres. b) Angle of pull of the muscle c) Speed of contraction Advantages of Isotonic Method a) Since isotonic method involves movement, it enhances co-ordination. b) This method is good for improving technique. c) It is effective for developing speed of movement and endurance. d) In as much as this method involves concentric movements, the resultant force developed is much greater as compared to other methods of strength development. e) Strength developed through this method can be maintained for longer period. Disadvantages of Isotonic Method a) The contraction of muscle is not systematic and objective. b) The time for which contraction is maintained is short. c) This method requires specialized equipment (barbells, medicine balls etc.) d) Distribution of energy is much greater because movement is repeated several times. e) Muscle injuries are more frequent in this method. 2. Isotonic, Dynamic or Eccentric Contraction In this contraction, the muscle lengthens while contracting (developing tension) i.e. both the origin and insertion on the muscle move away while the muscle is contracting. This contraction can be best explained with the example of elbow flexion against resistance. Flex your elbow and have someone trying to extend your forearm by pulling down on your wrist. At the same time, resist the pull by attempting to flex your elbow. As your forearm is extended, the elbow flexor muscle will lengthen while contracting. In our normal usage, eccentric contractions are based in countering the effect of gravity i.e. while  waling down the hill or stairs. In sports, it is used in activities like wrestling where one competitor resists the effort of the other to forcefully move the arm or the leg but ultimately lose out in the struggle. 3. Isometric or Static Contraction In this contraction tension is developed in the muscle working against resistance but there is no change in the length of the muscle. The literal meaning of the word isometric is constant length i.e., iso means constant and metric means length. The reason why the muscle does not shorten in this contraction is because the external resistance against which the muscle is pulling is much higher than the maximum tension (internal force) the muscle can produce. Advantages of Isometric Method a) Muscle can be co9ntracted more systematically and objectively. b) The duration of contraction is longer (6 to 10 seconds). c) Because of longer contraction, too many repetitions are avoided. d) Need for energy requirement is less and due to this sportsperson does not get tired. e) There is no requirement of specialized equipment. Disadvantages of isometric Method a) Since this method does not involve movement, it is bad for the development of coordination and skill. b) It does not contribute to development of speed of movement. c) It is not effective for development of endurance. d) Strength developed using this method is not maintained for long time.  The conclusions of research studies undertaken to compare the isotonic and isometric training programmes are summarized as follows: a) Since isotonic exercises are self-testing in nature, motivation technique can be used more effectively with this method. However, to use this method effectively, sufficiently space and special equipment are needed. On the other hand isometric can be performed any where (even in homes and offices) because they do not require any6 specialized equipment and requirement of space is limited. b) Both the methods (isotonic and isometric) enhance strength. The scholars have not shown the superiority of one over the other. (isotonic and isometric) enhance strength. The researchers have not shown the superiority of one over the other. However, there are few references reporting greater gains for trainees using isotonic exercises. c) Isotonic method develops muscular endurance more effectively as compared to isometric method. d) Recovery from muscular fatigue is quicker after isotonic exercise than after isometric exercise. e) Isotonic method brings about uniform development of strength over the entire range of motion whereas in respect of isometric method, more strength develops at one point in the range of joint motion i.e., the point at which position is held and tension is created in the muscle. 4. Isokinetic Contraction This procedure involves development of maximum tension in the muscle, which shortens at constant speed at all angles over the full range of motion.  The literal meaning of the term isokinetic is constant speed i.e./so means constant and kinetic means speed. Such contractions are more commonly involved in sports performance; a good example is arm stroke in butterfly style swimming. Although isokinetic and isotonic contractions are both concentric i.e. involve shortening, the two are not same. In isokinetic method, maximum tension is developed in the muscle throughout the entire range of motion but not in isotonic method. Besides in isotonic contraction the movement is not controlled and takes place relatively slow. For performing isokinetic exercises, special isokinetic machines are required. These machines have a speed governor so that the speed of movement is constant, no matter how much tension is created in the muscle. Therefore, in this method when quick movements are done, the muscle generates maximum tension throughout the entire range of motion, but the speed of movement will be constant. This special feature of the isokinetic machine is called “accommodating resistance”. Isokinetic method is considered to be the best for improving muscular strength and endurance for sports. COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF FOUR TYPES OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTIONS Comparative Isotonic Isometric Isokinetic Rating Concentric Eccentric Criterion Improvement of Excellent Poor Good Good co-ordination & skill Increase in Good Good Poor Excellent strength over range of motion Rate of Good Good Poor Excellent strength improvement Rate of Good Good Poor Excellent endurance improvement Requirement of Poor Poor Excellent Good time per training session Expense Good Good Excellent Poor Ease of Poor Poor Excellent Good performance Suitability for Excellent Excellent Good Poor progress assessment Adaptability to Good Good Poor Excellent sports movement pattern Prevention Poor Poor Good Excellent against injury Protection Poor Poor Good Excellent against muscle soreness Saving of Poor Poor Excellent Good energy Assessment of One-Repetition Maximum Muscle strength refers to a muscle’s maximum force generating capacity. The maximum weight (resistance) lifted with proper form for one repetition (1- RM) for a particular muscle action measures dynamic muscular strength. A trial-and-error approach determines the 1-RM strength value. After each successful single lift, the weight is increased by one to five Kg. until the maximum weight is achieved. The individual rests 2 to 3 minutes between attempts. It is possible to estimate 1-RM from sub-maximal effort. The following equations can be used to estimate 1-RM from 7- to 10-RM for untrained and trained persons. Untrained person 1-RM, kg=1.554 (7-to 10-RM, kg) – 5.181 Trained person 1-RM, kg=1.172 (7-to 10-RM, kg) + 7.704 Example: Estimate 1-RM for an untrained person whose 10-RM equals 50kg. 1-RM =1.554 x 50 –5.181 = 72.5kg Sportspersons adopt numerous training means for improving strength. The popular means adopted are: i) Training with free weights and weight stations using fixed and variable resistance ii) Training with medicine balls iii) Pushing and pulling against immovable objects iv) Machines equipped with mechanical