Science 9 Reviewer PDF

SCIENCE 9 REVIEWER LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY RULES WHAT IS LABORATORY APPARATUS? It refers to a diverse array of tools and equipment used in scientific settings to conduct experiments, collect data, and analyze results. These instruments ai...

SCIENCE 9 REVIEWER LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY RULES WHAT IS LABORATORY APPARATUS? It refers to a diverse array of tools and equipment used in scientific settings to conduct experiments, collect data, and analyze results. These instruments aid in performing precise and reliable experiments, which are fundamental to the advancement of various scientific fields. EXAMPLE OF LABORATORY EXAMPLE OF LABORATORY APPARATUS AND APPARATUS AND ITS USES 1. BEAKER- Beakers are versatile containers used for mixing, heating, and holding liquids during experiments. 2. TEST TUBE- Also known as sample tube, it is a common piece of laboratory glassware consisting of a finger-like length of glass, it holds small amounts of substances during experiments. 3. Erlenmeyer or titration flasks- have wide flat bottoms, conical bodies, and tall cylindrical necks. They are named after their inventor Emil Erlenmeyer. Erlenmeyer flasks are used to contain liquids and for mixing, heating, cooling, incubation, filtration, storage, and other liquid-handling processes. 4. VOLUMETRIC FLASK- The volumetric flask is used for measuring accurate volumes of liquid materials for laboratory experiments. They are favored when available because they are more accurate than graduated cylinders and beakers, which are other pieces of equipment that are used to measure liquids. 5. GRADUATED CYLINDER- designed cylinders for accurate measurements of liquids with a much smaller error than beakers. They are thinner than a beaker, have many more graduation marks, and are designed to be within 0.5-1% error. 6. PIPETTE- Used to measure and transfer precise volumes of liquids. It is commonly employed in analytical chemistry and titration experiments. 7. BURETTE- A burette, also called a buret, is a long, graduated, glass tube marked with measurements and used in chemistry. A burette functions as a tool for measuring both liquids and gasses. 8. FUNNEL- A funnel is a tube or pipe that is wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, used for guiding liquid or powder into a small opening. Funnels are usually made of stainless steel, aluminum, glass, or plastic. 9. CLAMP- A laboratory clamp is an essential piece of equipment used in a variety of settings for supporting and securing other items. 10. TEST TUBE BRUSH- A test tube brush or spout brush is a brush used for cleaning test tubes and narrow mouth laboratory glassware. 11. TEST TUBE HOLDER- It is used for holding a test tube in place when the tube is hot or should not be touched. 12. TEST TUBE STAND- Test tube stand or rack is used to hold tubes in upright and aligned position, for easy handling of tubes, and to prevent breakage or spillage. 13. BUNSEN BURNER- It is used to heat substances, to combust substances, and to sterilize objects on high heat. 14. PETRI DISH- used to culture different types of cells, including bacteria and molds. 15. GLASS ROD- also known as stirring rod or stir rod, is a piece of laboratory equipment used to mix chemicals and liquids for laboratory purposes.  16. TONG- large pincers for grasping and lifting vessels material of used heat-resistant in high temperature chemical reactions. 17. TRIPOD FOR BUNSEN BURNER- Used to support and stabilize various lab apparatus. 18. WIRE MESH GAUZE- Provides a stable, heat-resistant surface for containers such as flasks, beakers, and test tubes, and helps to distribute heat evenly. 19. MORTAR AND PESTLE- used to grind up solid chemicals into fine powder and crush solids into smaller pieces. 20. TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE- a mechanical weighing instrument that does not require power and provides accurate measurements. 10 COMMON SAFETY RULES 1. Know locations of laboratory safety showers, eyewash stations, to wash off hazardous chemicals from the body immediately. 2. Know emergency exit routes. 3. Avoid skin and eye contact with chemicals. 4. Minimize all chemical exposures. 5. No horseplay will be tolerated. 6. Laboratory safety glasses or goggles should be worn in any area where chemicals are used or stored. 7. Post warning signs when unusual hazards, hazardous materials, hazardous equipment, or other special conditions are present. Avoid distracting or startling persons working in the laboratory. 8. No cell phone or earbud usage is allowed in the active portion of the laboratories or during experimental operations. 9. Avoid wearing jewelry in the lab as this can post multiple safety hazards. 10. Avoid wearing jewelry in the lab as this can post multiple safety hazards. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide, between the body and the environment. 4 PHASES OF RESPIRATION 1. Breathing- Also called as ventilation, it is the act of taking air in (inspiration) and out of the lungs (expiration). 2. External Respiration- The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood within the lungs. 3. Internal Respiration -The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the body cells. 4. Cellular Respiration -The process of using oxygen (oxidation) to break down sugar (glucose) in food, producing energy (ATP) in cells and releasing carbon dioxide. PARTS OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT- it consists of the nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, and larynx. LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT- it is composed of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli, diaphragm. UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT 1. NOSTRILS AND NASAL CAVITIES- Air moves through these passages during breathing. The nasal passages filter and warm the air, and make it moist before it goes into the lungs. 2. PHARYNX- warmed, moistened, and filtered air moves through this muscular tube and it is the common passageway for both food and air.  3. LARYNX- Inside it there are two elastic ligaments, called vocal cords, that produce voice. It is supported by several curved pieces of cartilage. Two of the pieces are connected by a ridge, called thyroid cartilage or Adam’s apple. 4. TRACHEA- The trachea, or windpipe, is a rigid tube that stays open to allow air to pass in and out of the lungs. Cilia in the trachea is the tiny hair-like structures that move mucus and debris out of the respiratory tract. 5. LUNGS- main organ system of the respiratory system. They are sponge-like organs located in the chest cavity. 6. BRONCHI- the trachea branches off into two bronchi. One bronchus enters each lung. 7. BRONCHIOLES- Each bronchus divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles, which the air passes through. 8. ALVEOLI- Alveoli is located at the end of each bronchiole. Alveoli are air sacs which facilitate gas exchange. There are millions of them in the lungs. 9. DIAPHRAGM- The diaphragm is a muscle that helps you inhale and exhale (breathe in and out). When the lungs inhale, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward. At the same time, the muscles between the ribs contract and pull upward. This increases the size of the thoracic cavity and decreases the air pressure inside. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 1. COMMON COLD- Result of a viral infection caused by the rhinovirus. SYMPTOMS include sneezing, and runny nose. It can be relieved by resting and drinking lots of water. The abdominal thrust maneuver, also known as the Heimlich maneuver, is used to treat upper airway obstructions caused by foreign bodies. 2. INFLUENZA- Caused by several influenza viruses called myxovirus. Patience experience chills, fever, severe headache, muscular pains, runny nose, and general discomfort. 3. PNEUMONIA- Caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or even protozoa in rare circumstances. SYMPTOMS include fever, chest pain, fluid in lungs, and difficulty in breathing. Causes inflammation of the lungs’ alveoli, which become filled with pus or fluid. 4. TUBERCULOSIS- Caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which can spread through respiratory droplets by coughing, sneezing, or spitting phlegm. Pro-inflammatory response leads to tubercles. 5. ASTHMA- It is a chronic allergic condition that makes the breathing airways narrower and swollen and causes them to increase the production mucus. Asthmatic individuals experience recurring periods of breathing difficulties. Bronchodilators help relieve asthma, COPD and other lung condition symptoms by relaxing the muscles around your airways and helping clear mucus from your lungs. 6. BRONCHITIS- Inflammation of bronchial tubes. Caused by viral lung infections, industrial pollutants, and tobacco smoke. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic. 7. EMPHYSEMA- Caused by prolonged exposure to respiratory irritants such as tobacco chemicals and air pollutants such as factory fumes or coal. It damages the alveoli and breathing passageways. The air sacs expand, break and get damaged, forming a scar tissue. The amount of gas that can be exchange can be reduced. 8. CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD)- It is associated with a group of lung diseases like emphysema, asthma, and chronic bronchitis. It is preventable because smoking is the most common cause. 9. LUNG CANCER- One of the most leading causes cancer related deaths among men and women. Carcinogenic chemicals can cause the uncontrolled growth of tumors which occupy the space in the lungs used for gas exchange. IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Pollution- Can irritate the respiratory tract, leading to chronic conditions like bronchitis. Smoking- Damages the alveoli and increases the risk of respiratory diseases like lung cancer and emphysema. PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY DISEASES Regular Exercise- Improves lung capacity and strengthens the respiratory muscles. Vaccinations- Prevent respiratory infections such as influenza and pneumonia. Avoiding Smoking- Reduces the risk of developing chronic respiratory diseases. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body. Composed of the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HEART 1. The heart has four chambers: two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers). Left Ventricle- Pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body. Right Ventricle- Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs. ROLE OF BLOOD VESSELS Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels, where nutrient and gas exchange occur. BLOOD COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Red Blood Cells: Transport oxygen to the body's tissues. White Blood Cells: Fight infections. Platelets: Help in blood clotting. Plasma: The liquid portion of blood, carrying cells, nutrients, and waste products. COMMON CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DISORDERS Hypertension: Chronic high blood pressure, which can lead to heart disease and stroke. Anemia: A deficiency in red blood cells, leading to fatigue and weakness. Coronary Artery Disease: Blockage of the coronary arteries, leading to heart attacks. Atherosclerosis: A narrowing of the arteries caused by plaque deposits. Heart disease: Lack of blood supply to the heart because of narrowed arteries. IMPORTANCE OF A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE FOR CIRCULATORY HEALTH Regular Exercise- Strengthens the heart and improves circulation. Balanced Diet- Lowers cholesterol and blood pressure, reducing the risk of heart disease. Avoiding Smoking- Prevents damage to blood vessels and reduces the risk of heart attacks and strokes. PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR CIRCULATORY DISEASES Regular Health Screenings- Monitor blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and overall heart health. Healthy Diet- Includes low-fat dairy, whole grains, and leafy greens. Stress Management- Reduces the risk of high blood pressure and heart disease.