SAS for Biochemistry (BIO 024) Module #1 .pdf

Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________...

Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Lesson Title: CARBOHYDRATES Materials: Lesson Objectives: By the end of this module, you should be Pen or Pencil able to SAS 1. Define common terminologies under carbohydrates References: 2. Determine the principles on the molecular structures of Stoker, H. General, Organic carbohydrates. and Biological Chemistry, 6th 3. Determine the different classification of carbohydrate and its edition significance Denniston, K., Topping, J., & 4. Explain the etiology, symptoms and treatment of Quirk, D. (2016). General, carbohydrate related diseases Organic, and Biochemistry 5. (9th ed.). McGraw Hill. Productivity Tip: Before you start, give your brain and body a boost of energy by doing stretching and push ups (or any light cardio exercise you can do in your home), breathe deeply, and shout your inspirational message to start your learning journey (e.g., “Laban!”, “Kaya ko to!”, “Fighting!” etc.) Don’t forget to hydrate yourself occasionally. During the time you are studying, don’t forget to write the important key concepts or words to maximize your learning. And lastly, don’t forget to rest very well after every study session. A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW 1) Introduction (3 min) Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth. Although their abundance in the human body is relatively low, carbohydrates constitute about 75% by mass of dry plant materials. Green (chlorophyll-containing) plants produce carbohydrates via photosynthesis. In this process, carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil are the reactants, and sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll is the energy source. To learn more about photosynthesis, check this video: https://youtu.be/smGnrnqhCyQ This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |1  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Plants have two main uses for the carbohydrates they produce. In the form of cellulose, carbohydrates serve as structural elements, and in the form of starch, they provide energy reserves for the plants. Dietary intake of plant materials is the major carbohydrate source for humans and animals. The average human diet should ideally be about two-thirds carbohydrate by mass. Carbohydrates have the following functions in humans: In this module you will learn how carbohydrates are formed through structural arrangement, the classification and the uses of the different sugars or carbohydrates. This entails you to review basic organic chemistry (refer to the table of functional group). This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |2  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ 2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins) Instruction: On the table next page, write on the first column on what you know about on this topic based on the question next to it. No worries if you aren’t sure with your answer for this is only your guide on what you and what to focus for this topic. Keep the third column blank as you will encounter them again on the part 2. What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4) 1. Are all carbohydrates sweet? 2. Give at least one medical use for carbohydrates. B.MAIN LESSON 1) Activity 2: Content Notes (70 mins) Instructions: Highlight and take note the important concepts you will encounter in the module. A carbohydrate (Cn(H2O)n) is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, a polyhydroxy ketone, or a compound that yields polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon hydrolysis. The carbohydrate glucose is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, and the carbohydrate fructose is a polyhydroxy ketone. Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of molecular size as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and Tip: To understand better about aldehyde and polysaccharides. ketone, please check the table of different organic functional group that’s provided to you. Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of molecular size as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |3  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ UNDERSTANDING PRINCIPLES ON THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF CARBOHYDRATES The structures of carbohydrates are far from for being basic and ordinary. However, through the delicate principles involves from chirality-the handedness in molecules to Haworth projection formulas, details as to how sugars look and linked together can be understood in simple yet challenging ways. MIRROR IMAGES First, an important property of many molecules, including most carbohydrates, is “handedness,” which is a form of isomerism. Molecules that possess “handedness” exist in two forms: a “left- handed” form and a “right-handed” form. These two forms are related to each other in the same way that a pair of hands is related to each other. The relationship is that of mirror images. A left hand and a right hand are mirror images of each other. Objects can be divided into two classes based on their mirror images: objects with superimposable mirror images and objects with nonsuperimposable mirror images. Superimposable mirror images (Achiral) are images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other. Nonsuperimposable mirror images (Chiral) are images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |4  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ CHIRALITY Some, but not all, molecules possess handedness. What determines whether a molecule possesses handedness is the presence of a carbon atom that has four different groups bonded to it in a tetrahedral orientation. The tetrahedral orientation requirement is met only if the bonds to the four different groups are all single bonds. The handedness- generating carbon atom is called a chiral center. A chiral center is an atom in a molecule that has four different groups bonded to it in a tetrahedral orientation. A molecule that contains a chiral center is said to be chiral. A chiral molecule is a molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable. Chiral molecules have handedness. An achiral molecule is a molecule whose mirror images are superimposable. Achiral molecules do not possess handedness. REQUIREMENTS TO HAVE A “CHIRAL” MOLECULE 1. The tetrahedral orientation requirement is met only if the bonds from the center atom to the four different groups are all single bonds. 2. A chiral center is an atom in a molecule that has four different groups bonded to it in a tetrahedral orientation. In this part, carbon is seen as the Chiral center 3. A chiral molecule is a molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable. 4. Chiral molecules have handedness. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |5  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ THE IMPORTANCE OF CHIRALITY In human body chemistry, right-handed and left-handed forms of a molecule often elicit different responses within the body. Sometimes both forms are biologically active, each form giving a different response; sometimes both elicit the same response, but one form’s response is many times greater than that of the other; and sometimes only one of the two forms is biochemically active. For example, studies show that the body’s response to the right- handed form of the hormone epinephrine is 20 times greater than its response to the left-handed form. Monosaccharides, the simplest type of carbohydrate and the building block for more complex types of carbohydrates, are almost always “right-handed.” Plants, the main dietary source of carbohydrates, produce only right-handed monosaccharides. Interestingly, the building blocks for proteins, amino acids, are always left-handed molecules. STEREOISOMERISM: ENANTIOMERS and DIASTEREOMERS The left- and right-handed forms of a chiral molecule are isomers. They are not constitutional isomers, but rather are stereoisomers. Stereoisomers are isomers that have the same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the orientation of atoms in space. By contrast, atoms are connected to each other in different ways in constitutional isomers. Stereoisomers can be subdivided into two types: enantiomers and diastereomers. Enantiomers (Enantios- means opposite) are stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other. Left- and right-handed forms of a molecule with a single chiral center are enantiomers. Diastereomers are stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror images of each other. Cis–trans isomers (of both the alkene and the cycloalkane types) are diastereomers. Molecules that contain more than one chiral center can also exist in diastereomeric as well as enantiomeric forms. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |6  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ DESIGNATING HANDEDNESS (D,L) USING FISCHER PROJECTION FORMULAS Enantiomers are said to be optically active because of the way they interact with plane- polarized light. An optically active compound is a compound that rotates the plane of polarized light. A dextrorotatory compound is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise direction (means to the right, the Latin dextro means “right). A levorotatory compound is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise (to the left, the Latin Levo means “left”) direction. The D,L system used to designate the handedness of enantiomers is extended to monosaccharides with more than one chiral center in the following manner. The carbon chain is numbered starting at the carbonyl group end of the molecule, and the highest-numbered chiral center is used to determine D or L configuration. Particularly, the –OH group of the highest chiral carbon determines the configuration. If the –OH is in the right, then it’s a D-isomer and if the –OH is in the left, and then it’s an L-isomer. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |7  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ A Fischer projection formula is a two- dimensional structural notation for showing the spatial arrangement of groups about chiral centers in molecules. Named after Emil Fischer. STRUCTURES AND CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE C atoms C Atoms RCHO RCHO RCOR RCOR RCHO RCHO RCOR RCOR Although there is no limit to the number of carbon atoms that can be present in a 3(C3H6O3) triose triulose glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacteone monosaccharide, only monosaccharides with three to seven carbon atoms are 4(C4H8O4) tetrose tetrulose -Erythrose -Erythroluse commonly found in nature. A three-carbon -Threose monosaccharide is called a triose, and 5(C5H10O5) pentose pentulose -Ribose -Ribulose -Arabinose those that contain four, five, and six carbon -Xylose -Xylulose atoms are called tetroses, pentoses, and -Lyxose hexoses, respectively. 6(C6H12O6) hexose hexulose -Allose -Psicose -Altrose -Fructose Monosaccharides are classified as aldoses -Glucose -Sorbose or ketoses on the basis of type of carbonyl -Mannose group present. An aldose is a -Gulose monosaccharide that contains an -Idose aldehyde functional group. Aldoses are -Galactose -Talose polyhydroxy aldehydes. A ketose is a monosaccharide that contains a ketone functional group. Ketoses are polyhydroxy ketones. Monosaccharides are often classified by both their number of carbon atoms and their functional group. A six-carbon monosaccharide with an aldehyde functional group is an aldohexose; a five-carbon monosaccharide with a ketone functional group is a ketopentose. Monosaccharides are also often called sugars. Hexoses are six-carbon sugars, pentoses five-carbon sugars, and so on. The word sugar is associated with “sweetness,” and most (but not all) monosaccharides have a sweet taste. The designation sugar is also applied to disaccharides, many of which also have a sweet taste. Thus sugar is a general designation for either a monosaccharide or a disaccharide. Saccharide from the latin Saccharum means sugar. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |8  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Before you continue, practice this exercise both with your right and left hands. First, imagine that you have an additional 6th finger. Don’t ask why, just imagine. Second, number your fingers but consider your index as number 1, middle finger as no. 2, ring finger as no. 3 and pinky as no. 4. Lastly, familiarize in your head the counting and the position of the exercise. You can try doing it from slow until you get faster. Now, if you already know how it’s done, teach someone this hand exercise and the importance of it as you finish this module. 0 1 2 1,2 3 1, 3 2,3 1,2,3 ALDOSES (IN D CONFIGURATION) This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION Page |9  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Remember that hand exercise earlier? Here’s the meaning of the hand signals you have practiced earlier: 0 1 2 1,2 3 1, 3 2,3 1,2,3 I know it’s quite challenging. But was it exciting that finally you’ve got to learn that this hand exercise has meaning? Yes, they’re structures of sugars. First, I told you to imagine having an additional 6th finger. It is because 6 mean the total number of carbon (Hexoses). Second, numbering your fingers but consider your index as number 1 and not the thumb, because it is in your index finger that the first chiral carbon is present Lastly, familiarize in your head the counting and the position of the exercise. Zero for the first sugar, Allose, it is because it doesn’t have any chiral center. Now, you’ve tried doing it but only with your right hand or the right or D-configuration. However, then again because of its handedness, sugars also have left or L-configuration. Hence, practice this exercise both with your right and left hands and now you can name them. Let’s see about how ketoses would look like. KETOSES (IN D CONFIGURATION) This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 10  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ This table shows the possible number of optical isomer that the sugar (aldoses or ketoses) structures can be made based on the number of chiral centers/carbons and the location of the hydroxyl (-OH) group in the each of the chiral centers/carbons. The higher the number of chiral center/carbon, the higher is the possible number of optical isomer. Carbon atoms Chiral optical isomers 2n Ruling (Location of –OH in the chiral centers) carbons ▪ Aldohexose (6c) 4 2(4) =16, 8D&8L 1st chiral carbon – OH alternating right and left ▪ Aldopentose (5c) 3 2 (3) = 8, 4D&4L 2nd chiral carbon – OH alternating 2 rights and 2 lefts ▪ Aldotetrose (4c) 2 2(2) =4, 2D&2L 3rd chiral carbon – OH alternating 4 rights and 4 lefts ▪ 4th chiral carbon – OH alternating 8 rights and 8 left Ketohexose (6c) 3 2(3) =8, 4D&4L Ketopentose (5c) 2 2(2) =4, 2D&2L THE 16 OPTICAL ISOMERS OF ALDOHEXOSES Epimers - carbohydrates which vary in one position for the placement of the -OH group. The best examples are for D-glucose and D-galactose. The only difference between D-glucose and D-galactose is on carbon- 4. For D-glucose, the -OH is on the right in Fischer Projection, and for D-galactose, the -OH group is on the left. That single different makes D-glucose and D-galactose epimers. They are not enantiomers, or diastereomers, or isomers, they are only epimers. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 11  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ CYCLIC MONOSACCHARIDE: HAWORTH PROJECTION FORMULA Fischer projection formulas are useful for describing the stereochemistry of sugars, but their long bonds and right-angle bends do not give a realistic picture of the bonding situation in the cyclic forms, nor do they accurately represent the overall shape of the molecules. Haworth projection formulas are more useful for those purposes. A Haworth projection formula is a two-dimensional structural notation that specifies the three-dimensional structure of a cyclic form of a monosaccharide. The cyclic forms of monosaccharides result from the ability of their carbonyl group to react intramolecularly with a hydroxyl group. Structurally, the resulting cyclic compounds are cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals. A cyclic monosaccharide containing a six-atom ring is called a pyranose (only aldohexose is capable), and one containing a five-atom ring is called furanose (aldopentose and ketohexose are capable of forming) because their ring structures resemble the ring structures in the cyclic ethers pyran and furan, respectively. A cyclic monosaccharide containing a six-atom ring is called a pyranose (only aldohexose is capable), and one containing a five-atom ring is called furanose (aldopentose and ketohexose are capable of forming) because their ring structures resemble the ring structures in the cyclic ethers pyran and furan, respectively. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 12  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ The hemiacetal carbon atom present in a cyclic monosaccharide structure atom is called the anomeric carbon atom. An anomeric carbon atom is the hemiacetal carbon atom present in a cyclic monosaccharide structure. It is the carbon atom that is bonded to an -OH group and to the oxygen atom in the heterocyclic ring. Cyclic monosaccharide Note: This pyran form is only for ALDOHEXOSES formation always produces two stereoisomers— an (bonding C1 & C5) alpha form and a beta form. These two isomers are called anomers. Anomers are cyclic monosaccharides that differ only in the positions of the substituents on the anomeric (hemiacetal) carbon atom. The a-stereoisomer has the -OH group on the opposite side of the ring from the -CH2OH group, and the b-stereoisomer has the -OH group on the same side of the ring as the -CH2OH group. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 13  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 14  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ For those who will have difficulty in following the instruction in making Haworth projection formula, here’s a simpler one. Remember, the goal is to make a Haworth projection formula in easy and less complicated way. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 15  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Biochemically Important Monosaccharides Sugar Where Can Be Found Biochemical Importance D – Ribose (DNA and RNA Nucleic acids (β-d- Structural elements of nucleic Sugar, ATP Sugar) ribose and β-d- acids and coenzymes, deoxyribose) and ATP eg, ATP, NAD, NADP, flavoproteins. Ribose phosphates are intermediates in pathway (PPP) D - Ribulose Formed in metabolic processes Ribulose phosphate is an intermediate in pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) D-Arabinose Gum arabic. Plum and Constituent of glycoproteins cherry gums. D-Xylose (aka wood Wood gums, Constituent of glycoproteins sugar) proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 16  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ D-Lyxose Heart cells/muscle. A constituent of a lyxoflavin isolated from human heart muscle. L-Xylulose Intermediate in uronic Found in urine in essential acid pathway. pentosuria. Sugar Where Can Be Found Biochemical Importance Clinical Significance D-Glucose Fruit juices. Hydrolysis of “Sugar” of the body since Present in the urine (Grape starch, cane sugar, blood contains dissolved (glycosuria) in diabetes sugar, maltose, and lactose. glucose. Normal mellitus owing to dextrose, glucose level 70-100mg/dL raised blood glucose blood sugar) Primary source of cell’s (hyperglycemia). energy. D-Fructose Fruit juices. Present in Can be changed to glucose Hereditary fructose (levulose, Honey in equal amount w/ in the liver and so used in Intolerance leads to Fruit sugar, dietary glucose. the body. Sweetest tasting fructose accumulation sugar) sugar. Dietary sugar and hypoglycemia. because less is needed for the same amount of sweetness. D-Galactose Hydrolysis of lactose. Can be changed to Failure to metabolize (brain sugar) (disaccharide consisting glucose in the liver and leads to galactosemia (just remember that of a glucose and a metabolized and cataract our brain is a galactose unit) since this As brain sugar it is a galaxy of information) sugar does not occur free constituent of in nature. Synthesized in glycolipids and the mammary gland to glycoproteins found in make the lactose of milk brain and nerve tissue. D-galactose is present in chemical markers that distinguish various types of blood—A, B, AB, and O D-Mannose Hydrolysis of plant A constituent of Used for preventing mannans and gums. many glycoproteins. urinary tract infections (UTIs) and treating carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome, an inherited metabolic disorder. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 17  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDE Five important reactions of monosaccharides are oxidation to acidic sugars, reduction to sugar alcohols, glycoside formation, phosphate ester formation, and amino sugar formation. Remember, however, that other aldoses, as well as ketoses, undergo similar reactions. Oxidation to Produce Acidic Sugars The redox chemistry of monosaccharides is closely linked to that of the alcohol and aldehyde functional groups. ACIDIC SUGARS ALDONIC ACID ALDURONIC ACID ALDARIC ACID Acid group on top acid group on bottom acid groups both on top uses weak oxidizing agent uses enzymes and bottom uses strong oxidizing agent Reduction to Produce Sugar Alcohols The carbonyl group present in a monosaccharide (either an aldose or a ketose) can be reduced to a hydroxyl group, using hydrogen as the reducing agent. For aldoses and ketoses, the product of the reduction is the corresponding polyhydroxy alcohol, which is sometimes called a sugar alcohol. For example, the reduction of D-glucose gives D-glucitol. D-Glucitol aka D-sorbitol have properties similar to those of the trihydroxy alcohol glycerol. These alcohols are used as moisturizing agents in foods and cosmetics because of their affinity for water. D-Sorbitol is also used as a sweetening agent in chewing gum; bacteria that cause tooth decay cannot use polyalcohols as food sources, as they can glucose and many other monosaccharides. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 18  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Glycoside Formation Hemiacetals were shown to react with alcohols in acid solution to produce acetals. Because the cyclic forms of monosaccharides are hemiacetals, they react with alcohols to form acetals, like the reaction of b-D-glucose with methyl alcohol. The general name for monosaccharide acetals is glycoside. A glycoside is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH group with an -OR group. It can exist both in alpha and beta form. Phosphate Ester Formation The hydroxyl groups of a monosaccharide can react with inorganic oxyacids to form inorganic esters. Phosphate esters, formed from phosphoric acid and various monosaccharides. For example, specific enzymes in the human body catalyze the esterifi cation of the hemiacetal group (carbon 1) and the primary alcohol group (carbon 6) in glucose to produce the compounds glucose 1-phosphate and glucose 6-phosphate, respectively. These phosphate esters of glucose are stable in aqueous solution and play important roles in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Amino Sugar Formation If one of the hydroxyl groups of a monosaccharide is replaced with an amino group, an amino sugar is produced. In naturally occurring amino sugars, of which there are three common ones, the amino group replaces the carbon 2 hydroxyl group. The three common natural amino sugars are. Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives are important building blocks of polysaccharides found in chitin and hyaluronic acid. The N-acetyl derivatives of D-glucosamine and D-galactosamine are present in the biochemical markers on red blood cells, which distinguish the various blood types. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 19  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ DISACCHARIDES A monosaccharide that has cyclic forms (hemiacetal forms) can react with an alcohol to form a glycoside (acetal). This same type of reaction can be used to produce a disaccharide, a carbohydrate in which two monosaccharides are bonded together. In disaccharide formation, one of the monosaccharide reactants functions as a hemiacetal, and the other functions as an alcohol. The bond that links the two monosaccharides of a disaccharide (glycoside) together is called a glycosidic linkage. A glycosidic linkage is the bond in a disaccharide resulting from the reaction between the hemiacetal carbon atom -OH group of one monosaccharide and an -OH group on the other monosaccharide. It is always a carbon–oxygen–carbon bond in a disaccharide. It was noted that a cyclic monosaccharide contains a hemiacetal (anomeric) carbon atom. Many disaccharides contain both a hemiacetal carbon atom and an acetal carbon atom, as is the case for the preceding disaccharide structure. Hemiacetal and acetal locations within disaccharides play an important role in the chemistry of these substances. Tabulation of Disaccharide This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 20  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Features Maltose Cellobiose Lactose Sucrose Malt sugar Common (1/3 as sweet Cellobiose Milk sugar Table sugar Names as sucrose) Juice of sugar cane Intermediate in the Milk.. Digestion by (20% by mass) & hydrolysis of amylase or sugar beets (17% by polysaccharide Clinical significance: hydrolysis of mass) cellulose In lactase deficiency, starch. Source malabsorption leads Germinating Clinical significance: Nursing mother =7- to diarrhea and cereals and In sucrase deficiency, 8% flatulence. Hence, malt. malabsorption leads to Cow’s milk = 4-5% lactose intolerance diarrhea and flatulence. 2 Glucose units 2Glucose units Structural - -D glucose --D-galactose & --D glucose & --D-glucose & Units & -D- glucose --D- fructose -D- glucose - D-glucose (1-4) (head to Glycosidic ,(1-2) tail) (1-4) (head to tail) (1-4) (head to tail) Linkage (head to head) Enzymes for Maltase Cellobiase Lactase Sucrase hydrolysis OLIGOSACCHARIDES Are saccharides that contain three to ten monosaccharide units bonded to each other via glycosidic linkages. Two naturally occurring oligosaccharides found in onions, cabbage, broccoli, brussel sprouts, whole wheat, and all types of beans are the trisaccharide raffinose and the tetra saccharide stachyose This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 21  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ TRISACCHARIDE: RAFFINOSE composed of: -D-galactose -D-glucose -D-fructose TETRASACCHARIDE: STACHYOSE composed of: -D-galactose -D-galactose -D-glucose -D-fructose IMPORTANCE OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES The type of blood a person has (O, A, B, or AB) is determined by the type of oligosaccharide that is attached to the person’s red blood cells. Four monosaccharides contribute to the make-up of the oligosaccharide “marking system.” POLYSACCHARIDES This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 22  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ A polysaccharide is a polymer that contains many monosaccharide units bonded to each other by glycosidic linkages. Polysaccharides are often also called glycans. Glycan is an alternate name for a polysaccharide. Unlike monosaccharides and most disaccharides, polysaccharides are not sweet. They have limited water solubility because of their size. However, the -OH groups present can individually become hydrated by water molecules. The result is usually a thick colloidal suspension of the polysaccharide in water. Polysaccharides, such as flour and cornstarch, are often used as thickening agents in sauces, desserts, and gravy. Parameters to distinguish polysaccharides: 1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit(s) in the polymer chain. a. Homopolysaccharide/glycan - only one type of monosaccharide monomer b. Heteropolysaccharide/glycan - with more than one (usually two) type of monosaccharide monomer 2. The length of the polymer chain. 3. The type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units. 4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain. TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES A. STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE: used as an energy source in cells. Examples are starch and glycogen GLYCOGEN STARCH -energy storage polysaccharide for -energy storage polysaccharide in plants animals aka animal starch Amylose Amylopectin 3x more highly branched than -straight-chain -a branched glucose amylopectin and it is much larger, glucose polymer, polymer, accounts for the with up to 1,000,000 glucose units usually accounts for remaining 80%–85% of present. 15%–20% of the the starch. starch More water soluble - with 300-500 because of increase in monomer units of branching glucose - contains 100,000 glucose units This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 23  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ B. STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE: serves as a structural element in plant cell walls and animal exoskeletons like chitin and cellulose. Cellulose Chitin the structural component of plant cell The 2nd most abundant naturally occurring walls, polysaccharide, next to cellulose. is the most abundant naturally occurring Function is to give rigidity to the polysaccharide. exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, the “woody” portions of plants—stems, shrimp, insects, and other arthropods. stalks, and trunks—have particularly high It also has been found in the cell walls of concentrations of this fibrous, water- fungi. insoluble substance. Structurally identical to cellulose, except Contains 5000 glucose units the monosaccharide present is Nondigestible (human lacks cellulase) N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (rather than glucose) ND-glucosamine, product of hydrolysis of chitin, that is marketed as a dietary supplement touted to decrease joint inflammation and pain associated w/ osteoarthritis. C. ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDE with a disaccharide repeating unit in which one of the disaccharide components is an amino sugar and one or both disaccharide components have a negative charge due to a sulfate group or a carboxyl group. Acidic polysaccharides are heteropolysaccharides. ex.hyaluronic acid & heparin HYALURONIC ACID HEPARIN ▪ contains alternating residues of N- small highly-sulfated polysaccharide with acetyl-b-Dglucosamine (NAG) and D- only 15–90 disaccharide residues per chain Glucuronate. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 24  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ ▪ D-Glucuronate – is the carboxylate ion The source for pharmaceutical heparin is intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter-house formed when D-glucuronic acid loses its acidic hydrogen atom. animals (pigs and cows). Both with ▪ Highly viscous hyaluronic acid solutions negative charge groups. serve as lubricants in the fluid of joints, Blood anticoagulant. It is naturally present in mast cells and is released at the site of ▪ are also associated with the jelly-like tissue injury. consistency of the vitreous humor of the It prevents the formation of clots in the eye. (The Greek word hyalos means blood and retards the growth of existing “glass”; hyaluronic acid solutions have a clots within the blood. It does not, glass-like appearance.) however, break down clots that have already formed. The source for pharmaceutical heparin is intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter- house animals (pigs and cows). SPECIAL GROUP: GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGS) -aka mucopolysaccharides, or negatively charged polysaccharides. Are large linear polymers of repeating disaccharide units, commonly containing one or another amino sugar as one of the monomers in the disaccharide units. GENERAL ROLE: ▪ mechanical support ▪ cushioning of joints ▪ cellular signals in cell proliferation and cell migration ▪ inhibitors of certain enzymes LOCATION: ▪ found outside cells ▪ cell surface This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 25  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ ▪ part of extracellular matrix ▪ or attached to protein core to form proteoglycans. PROTEOGLYCANS: ▪ When glycosamnoglycans are attached to a protein molecule the compound is called proteoglycan [proteoglycans = Glycosaminoglycans + proteins] ▪ are more carbohydrate than protein, hence their properties are mainly determined by the carbohydrate portion of the molecule. ▪ The carbohydrate moieties may contain carboxylic acids or sulfated sugars thus the GAG chain carry negative charge PROTEOGLYCAN STRUCTURE: Core protein strands are heavily modified keratin sulfate and chondroitin sulfate. The core protein strands are held in a complex with s strand of hyaluronic acid by link proteins. EXAMPLES OF GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGS) ▪ chondroitin sulfate ▪ heparin sulfate ▪ keratan sulfate ▪ dermatan sulfate HEPARAN SULFATE (HS) ▪ sulfated polysaccharide found as a component of cell-surface proteoglycans as a component of cell- surface proteoglycans in mast cells and in the surface of endothelial cells lining blood vessels ▪ composed of repeating units of N- acetylglucosamine and uronic acids. ▪ Sulfate ester formation can be found at several positions on these residues and the acetyl group on N-acetylglucosamine may be replaced by sulfate group (see heparin structure) FUNCTION: After an injury to tissue, the oligosaccharides derived from this GAG are released to: o help mediate the inflammatory response o promote activity by growth factors, chemokines and cytokines o recruit leukocytes to the injury site o as anticoagulant in the form of pentasaccharide sequence, HEPARIN. NOTE: Heparin is much smaller than heparin sulfate and that is not linked to a protein core. It is also more sulfated than the average random polysaccharide sequence in heparin sulfate. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 26  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ CHONDROITIN SULFATE (CS): ▪ contains alternating residues of glucuronic acid and galactose N-acetyl 4-sulfonate ▪ structural polysaccharide of ligaments, cartilage and tendons ▪ ROLE: to lend mechanical support and flexibility to tissue to help form skin and cartilage DERMATAN SULFATE (DS): ▪ closely related GAG, which is composed of glucuronic acid and N-acetylgalactosamine ▪ structural polysaccharide in skin KERATAN SULFATE (KS): ▪ formed form alternating units of galactose and sulfated N-acetylgucosamine ▪ found primarily in the cornea of the eye and in joint cartilage for mechanical support and structural role ▪ structural polysaccharide in nails OTHER NATURAL POLYSACCHARIDE OF INTEREST AGAR ▪ linear polymer of sulfated and unsulfated galactose prepared form marine algae – agarose ▪ w/ alternating copolymer of galactose and 3,6-anhydrous-galactose ▪ Not a proteoglycan but is purely carbohydrate ▪ When dissolves in hot water and then cooled, it forms gels ▪ Also used as food additive to chicken liquid suspensions INULIN ▪ is a polysaccharide of fructose (and hence a fructosan found in tubers and roots of dahlias, artichokes, and dandelions. ▪ It is readily soluble in water and is used to determine the glomerular filtration rate. DEXTRINS ▪ are intermediates in the hydrolysis of starch. Carbohydrate Related Diseases 1.) Diabetes - is a chronic (long-lasting) health condition that affects how your body turns food into energy. - Most of the food you eat is broken down into sugar (also called glucose) and released into your bloodstream. When your blood sugar goes up, it signals your pancreas to release insulin. Insulin acts like a key to let the blood sugar into your body’s cells for use as energy. - If you have diabetes, your body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use the insulin it makes as well as it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 27  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Symptoms of Diabetes Types of Diabetes The Big 3 (3Ps) – These are the common ones seen in diabetic patients 1. Type 1 - most diagnosed in children and 1. Polyuria – increase urination teenagers. It’s an autoimmune condition. 2. Polydipsia – increase thirst When you have type 1 diabetes, your immune 3. Polyphagia – increase eating due to system attacks the cells in your pancreas hunger responsible for making insulin. 2. Type 2 - happens when your body stops Other noted symptoms: responding to the insulin your pancreas makes. Over time, your pancreas also stops producing 1. Weight loss enough insulin. It’s generally linked to a 2. Slow healing of wounds combination of genetic and lifestyle factors. 3. Extreme fatigue 3. Gestational - this type of diabetes is a 4. Blurry vision response to the hormonal changes that happen 5. Tingling or numbness in the hands during pregnancy. The hormones made in the and feet placenta can lower your body’s sensitivity to insulin. This may result in high blood sugar during pregnancy. - There isn’t a cure yet for diabetes, but losing weight, eating healthy food, and being active can really help. Taking medicine as needed, getting diabetes self-management education and support, and keeping health care appointments can also reduce the impact of diabetes on your life. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 28  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ 2.) Galactosemia - Also known as: o galactose-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase deficiency o transferase deficiency galactosemia o GALT deficiency - is a rare, hereditary disorder of carbohydrate metabolism that affects the body’s ability to convert galactose to glucose. Galactose is a sugar contained in milk, including human mother’s milk as well as other dairy products. It is also produced by the human body, and this is called endogenous galactose. Glucose is a different type of sugar. - The disorder is caused by a deficiency of Symptoms of a Classic Galactosemia an enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase (GALT) which is vital to this process. Galactosemia is inherited as an autosomal recessive genetic condition. - Classic galactosemia and clinical variant galactosemia can both result in life- threatening health problems unless lactose is removed from the diet shortly after birth. How is galactosemia treated? Treatment requires the strict exclusion of lactose/galactose from the diet. A person with galactosemia will never be able to properly digest foods containing galactose. There is no chemical or drug substitute for the missing enzyme at this time. An infant diagnosed with galactosemia will simply be changed to a formula that does not contain galactose. With care and continuing medical advances, most children with galactosemia can now live normal lives. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 29  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (25 mins + 5 mins checking) A. Matching type: Match column A with the definition in column B -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- COLUMN A: COLUMN B: Definitions Terminologies ____ 1. Molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable A. Anomers ____ 2. Molecule whose mirror images are superimposable B. Stereoisomers ____ 3. Are images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other C. Isomers ____ 4. Are images where not all points coincide when the images D. Enantiomers are laid upon each other. E. Diastereomers ____ 5. Act as an energy reserve in plants F. Epimers ____ 6. Act as a structural component in plants G. Chiral molecule ____ 7. most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet H. Achiral molecule Earth I. Nonsuperimposable mirror image J. Superimposable mirror image K. Carbohydrate L. Starch M. Cellulose N. Photosynthesis STEREOISOMERISM B. MATCHING TYPE: Characterize the members of each of the following pairs of structure as: Enantiomer, Diasteriomer, Neither enantiomer nor diasteriomer ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- A B C Pairs: 1. A ____________________________ 2. B____________________________ 3. C ____________________________ This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 30  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ FISCHER PROJECTION FORMULA C. Instruction: Identify the 1st sugar as D or L isomer. Then draw its mirror image ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- D. HAWORTH PROJECTION: D1: Instruction: Identify the structure of sugar units. ENCIRCLE the letter of your choice. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. What is the structure being illustrated? A. a-D-altrose B. b-D-altose C. a-L-altrose D. b-L-altrose 2. What is the structure being illustrated? A. a-D-lyxose B. b-D-lyxose C. a-L-lyxose D. b-L-lyxose This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 31  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ D2: Instruction: Draw the (4) HAWORTH PROJECTION FORMULA for IDOSE. Label as D or L isomer and as alpha or beta anomer. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- E. STRUCTURAL SIMILARITIES and DIFFERENCES STRUCTURE FEATURE D-glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone w/ or w/o chiral center L or D isomer is or is not possible Functional class (Aldose or Ketose) This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 32  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ F. SACCHARIDE F1:Match the following saccahrides as mono, di, oligo or polysaccharide. Write only the letter before each number. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- COLUMN A: COLUMN B: Examples COLUMN B: Examples Saccharide units _____ 1. Idose _____ 6. Chondroitin sulfate A. Monosaccharide _____ 2. Heparin _____ 7. Starch B. Disaccharide _____ 3. Chitin _____ 8. Glycogen C. Oligosaccharide _____ 4. Dextrin _____ 9. Erythrose D. Polysaccharide _____ 5. Psicose _____ 10. Cellobiose F2: MATCH the letter from Column A on items given in column B and C. Write only the letter before each number. COLUMN A: COLUMN B: OTHER COLUMN C: SIGNIFICANCE Saccharides NAMES _____ 1. Is high during the state of A. Glucose ____ 1. Levulose hyperglycemia B. Galactose ____ 2. Dextrose _____ 2. Failure to metabolize leads to C. Ribose ____ 3. Wood sugar galactosemia and cataract D. Fructose ____ 4. DNA sugar _____ 3. Another component to make the E. Xylose ____ 5. ATP sugar disaccharide lactose aside from glucose F. Mannose ____ 6. Blood sugar _____ 4. Present in all 3 disaccharides _____ 5. A structural component of the brain F3: MATCH the letter from Column A on items given in column B and C. Write only the letter before each number. COLUMN A: COLUMN B: Composition COLUMN C: Other names Saccharides _____ 1. Glucose + glucose _____1. Milk sugar A. Maltose _____ 2. Glucose + Fructose _____2. Malt sugar B. Lactose _____ 3. Glucose + Galactose _____3. Table sugar C. Sucrose This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 33  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ F4: MATCH the letter from Column A on items given in column B. Then the number from column B with column C. COLUMN A: COLUMN B: OTHER COLUMN C: SIGNIFICANCE Classification NAMES _____ A. energy storage polysaccharide of A. _ Acidic ____ 1. Chitin plants B. _ Structural ____ 2. Starch _____ B. glucose storage polysaccharide in C. _ Storage ____ 3. Hyaluronic acid humans and animals ____ 4. Cellulose _____ C. present in woody portion of plant-stem ____ 5. Glycogen _____ D. associated with the jelly-like ____ 6. Heparin consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye _____ E. blood anticoagulant _____ F. contains alternating residues of N- acetyl-b-Dglucosamine (NAG) and DGlucuronate used for arthritis F5: MATCH the letter from Column A on items given in column B. Write only the letter before each number. COLUMN A: COLUMN B: SIGNIFICANCE glycosaminoglycans _____ 1. recruit leukocytes to the injury site A. chondroitin _____ 2. structural polysaccharide in nails sulfate _____ 3. which is composed of glucuronic acid and N- B. heparin acetylgalactosamine sulfate _____ 4. mechanical support and flexibility to tissue to help form C. keratin skin and cartilage sulphate _____ 5. structural polysaccharide in skin D. Dermatan sulphate G. Carbohydrate Related Diseases. MATCH the letter from Column A on items given in column B. Write only the letter before each number. COLUMN A: COLUMN B: A. Galactosemia _____ 1. A type of diabetes that describes the insufficiency of the B. Type I Diabetes body to secrete insulin. C. Type II Diabetes _____ 2. Increase thirst D. Gestational _____ 3. is a rare, hereditary disorder of carbohydrate Diabetes metabolism that affects the body’s ability to convert galactose to E. Polyuria glucose. F. Polyphagia _____ 4. A type of diabetes that is seen during pregnancy. _____ 5. Increase eating due to hunger This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 34  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ 2) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (3 mins) To review what was learned from this session, please go back to Activity 1 and answer the “What I Learned” column. Notice and reflect on any changes in your answers. 3) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (20 mins) Now it’s time for you to figure this one out on your own! Take time to read, analyze, and understand the following scenarios. Answer key will be provided during our discussion session. A. Multiple Choice: Choose the best and correct answer to every question. Write the CAPITAL LETTER of your final answer before the number. _____1. Which of the following would be correct Haworth projection for a-D-Talose (linear form is in the left side)? a. A b. B c. C d. D _____2. Which of the following monosaccharide structural relationship is CORRECT? a. 1 and 2 are enantiomers, while 2 and 3 are diastereomers b. 1 and 2 are diastereomers, whiles 2 and 3 are diastereomers c. 1 and 2 are enantiomers, while 2 and 3 are enantiomers d. 1 and 2 are diastereomers, while 2 and 3 are enantiomers. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 35  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ 3. Which of the following statement/s correctly describes the relationship between galactose and glucose? a. Glucose and galactose are both Aldohexoses b. They constitute the structure of the disaccharide maltose c. They are epimers at carbon 4 d. They are not mirror images of each other, neither an enantiomeric pair. 4. The only sugar structure that does NOT contain chiral carbon atom. a. Erythrose b. Erythroluse c. Glyceraldehyde d. Dihydroxyacetone 5. The simplest class (with an example) of carbohydrates.? a. Oligosaccharides: Trehalose c. Disaccharides: Lactose b. Monosaccharides: Sorbose d. Polysaccharides: Starch 6. What form must all carbohydrates be in for cells to use them as an energy source making it the most abundant inside the body? a. Glycogen c. Glucose b. Fructose b. Ribose 7. Polysaccharides are a. Saccharide units that contain 3 to 10 units b. the simplest sugar units c. Saccharides with 2 sugar units joined through glycosidic linkage d. class of carbohydrates is considered as non-sugar 8. Which of the following glycosidic linkage is found in maltose? a. Glucose (α-1 – 2β) Fructose b. Glucose (α1 – 4) Glucose c. Galactose (β1 – 4) Glucose d. Glucose (β1 – 4) Glucose 9. Choose the statement/s that is/are correct. a. cellulose is usually found in woody parts of the plants b. glycogen; major storage form of glucose in animals c. Chitin; found in exoskeleton of crustaceans d. Starch; structural form of sugar in plants 10. Why are carbohydrates the body\'s preferred source of energy? Because they… a. Are inexpensive to buy b. can be used as efficient fuel c. are long term storage of energy d. They are plentiful in the diet This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 36  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ C. LESSON WRAP-UP 1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins) A. Work Tracker You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session number you just completed. P1 P2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 B. Think about your Learning Tell me about your thoughts! Today’s topic is all about the carbohydrates. 1. What interests you about the lesson today? 2. Do you have questions in mind that you are interested to be discussed? Please write it down. __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________ FAQs 1. What are the negative effects of carbohydrates? Ans: Refined carbs may increase blood triglycerides, blood sugar levels and cause insulin resistance. All of these are major risk factors for heart disease and type 2 diabetes. 2. How can carbohydrates lead to diabetes? Ans: When a person consumes carbohydrates, the digestive system breaks some of them down into glucose. This glucose enters the blood and raises blood sugar, or glucose, levels. When blood glucose levels rise, beta cells in the pancreas release insulin. Insulin is a hormone that makes our cells absorb blood sugar for energy or storage. As the cells absorb the blood sugar, blood sugar levels start to drop. When blood sugar levels drop below a certain point, alpha cells in the pancreas release glucagon. Glucagon is a hormone that makes the liver release glycogen, a sugar stored in the liver. In short, insulin and glucagon help maintain regular levels of blood glucose in cells, especially the brain cells. Insulin brings excess blood glucose levels down, while glucagon brings levels back up when they are too low. This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 37  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ If blood glucose levels rise too rapidly, too often, the cells can eventually become faulty and not respond properly to insulin’s instructions. Over time, the cells need more insulin to react. We call this insulin resistance. After producing high levels of insulin for many years, the beta cells in the pancreas can wear out. Insulin production drops. Eventually it can stop altogether. 3. Should carbohydrates be eaten before exercise? Ans: Ingestion of carbs before exercise is important, mainly for the purpose of topping up energy stores in muscles and the liver, and so fatigue delay and performance can be improved by ensuring these stores are high when first beginning exercise. Eating carbs will therefore be beneficial both during and after exercise, helping you feel the benefits of your sport and exercise. For high endurance sports it is best to maximise glycogen stores in the days leading to an event by carbo-loading the few days prior to an event. 4. What happens when all carbs are used? Ans: Your performance firstly decreases when you skip or use up all your carbs, muscle movements and motivation both become more difficult, which can then affect performance. When carb stores have been used up, the body will then use protein as it’s energy source, which subsequently will affect it’s ability to gain and support muscles. Burning protein as energy can cause further problems as when your body tries to clean out the byproducts of protein, your kidneys have to work harder, causing stress which could result in damaging them. Carbs also help fueling the brain and central nervous system, and when you have run out of carbs, this can affect their functioning and can in serious cases lead to further problems. KEY TO CORRECTION A. TERMINOLOGIES 1. G 2. H 3. J 4. I 5. L 6. M 7. K B. STEREOISOMERISM Pairs: 1. A: diastereomers 2.B: diastereomers 3.C: Neither enantiomer nor diastereomer FISCHER PROJECTION FORMULA H. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 38  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ I. HAWORTH PROJECTION: D1: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- B. b-D-altose A. a-D-lyxose D2: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- β J. STRUCTURE FEATURE D-glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone w/ or w/o chiral center w/ chiral center w/o chiral center L or D isomer is Possible Not possible or is not possible Functional class (Aldose or Aldose Ketose Ketose) This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION P a g e | 39  Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules) Student Activity Sheet Module #1 Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______ Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________ F. SACCHARIDE ACTIVITY ANSWERS: F1 1.A 2.D 3.D 4.D 5.A 6. D 7.D 8.D 9.A 10.B F2 Column B: 1. D 2.A 3. E 4. C 5.C 6. A 7.A 8.C 9.D