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Week 1 What are the five domains of 1. Phonology language? Smallest meaning-differentiating unit 2. Morphology Smallest meaning-carrying...

Week 1 What are the five domains of 1. Phonology language? Smallest meaning-differentiating unit 2. Morphology Smallest meaning-carrying unit 3. Semantics The study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences (linguistic & sentential) 4. Syntax The set of rules that govern the structure of sentences in the arrangement of words. 5. Pragmatics The way language is used to communicate within a specific context. What are the main components of 1. Conceptualiser Explain what happens in the conceptualiser the Levelt model? Message generator 1. When a person wants to convey a message, it starts as a Monitor communicative intent in the conceptualiser where it Discourse processing undergoes self-monitoring to generate a pre-verbal message. 2. Fromulator During this process, it chooses relevant information to share, what was previously said thereby generating an appropriate Input Output message to convey, in the form of internal speech. Gramma Gramma Explain what happens in the formulator. tical tical 2. The formulator provides grammatical and phonological encodin decodin structure, translating the conceptual concept of the g g pre-verbal message into a phonetic articulatory plan which is Phonolo Phonolo an internal representation of how the utterance should be gical gical produced. Grammatical encoding takes into account semantic, syntactic & morphological factors of the chosen  language. It requires conscious knowledge about the encodin decodin pre-verbal message which stimultes a search within the g g lexicon for words that match the meaning in the pre-verbal 3. Articulators - speech output message. Lemmas or words are activated once there have 4. Acoustic phonetic processor - been a match, which also activates the syntactic building speech input structure responsible for the surface structure of words such as the appropriate sequence for the group of lemmas. Such as choosing "is" instead of "was" to convey that dinner is presently ready. When the structure has been established, a motor plan for each lemma or utterance is then built or retrieved as a whole through phonological encoding. The lexicon determines how the phonology is encoded based on its phonetics. This motor plan consists of the articulatory movements needed to attain the articulatory goal. After which, the motor programme will arrange these movements into specific sequences and order which also includes lexical stress and specific intonations. For example, the motor plan could consist of articulatory movements such as a voiced alveolar stop /d/, a long high vowel and voiced alveolar nasal. Which the motor programme while sequence them according to the utterance. Explain what happens in the lexicon 3. The lexicon is a long term storage which provides concrete words in its varius forms, along with their respective motor programs. Lexical retrieval in the lexicon occurs when we are finding the words to communicate our idea. In this case, the lexical search might have started by using conscious knowledge such as a mealtime during the night, and then identifies the word "dinner" and other factors such as the singularity or plurality when choosing the appropriate word form. Explain what happens in the articulator 4. The articulatory plan then gets transferred to the articulator to configure the various articulators to produce speech sounds. It executes the motor programme with specific vocal tract movements which requires sensorimotor integration of muscle command preparation. For example,  moving the articulators to change the tongue position from the roof of the mouth to the postalveolar ridge. The acoustic phonetic processor picks up acoustic sound waves from the environment and sieves out relevant phonetic input to be processed by the formulator. The phonological decoder decodes and processes the input and matches them to the lexicon while the grammatical decoder decodes its syntactic and morphological information to uncover the parsed speech. Which is then processed by the discourse processor with the help of self-monitoring, to analyse the message’s inferred intent. Describe Stackhouse & Well’s 1. Peripheral auditory processing Firstly, sounds are picked up in the peripheral auditory Language processing model 2. Speech/non-speech discrimination processing unit. 3. Phonological recognition a. Phonetic discrimination The sound waves go through the process of speech and 4. Phonological representation non-speech discrimination, to identify the lexical content 5. Semantic representation amongst the string of acoustic sounds. 6. Motor Program a. Motor programming They then go through the processes of phonological 7. Motor planning recognition where speech sounds are recognised as part of a 8. Motor execution plan. In phonetic discrimination, it identifies a foreign accent which is not part of their own language. Phonological representation is where the phonological structures of words are stored, based on their phonemic characteristics such as the starting and ending sounds of words. The linguistic meanings of words are stored in the lexicon, in the semantic representations. The motor program consists of sets of instructions for how to make the sounds needed to produce the word. Production starts at the motor programming where a motor program is retrieved for the utterance.  In motor planning, additional information such as lexical stress and intonation are added appropriate for context. And finally, the speech muscles are activated to produce the utterance through motor execution. **the motor programming, is a temporary storage where it can copy the word that was heard, and produce it accordingly. List three tasks that tap mainly Rhyme judgment Rhyme judgment, phoneme identification, and real word input processing on the Phoneme identification identification only tap into the input processes of the Stackhouse and Wells model. Real word identification Stackhouse and Wells Model. They only require the peripheral acoustic processing to pick up speech, processed through the speech/non-speech discriminator to detect lexical units, before it is processed in the phonological recognition and phonetic discriminator for rhyme judgment and phoneme identification, and semantic presentations for real word identification tasks. Two tasks that tap output Reading aloud Articulation drills, reading aloud and picture naming tasks processing on the Stackhouse and Picture naming tasks only tap into the output processes of the Stackhouse and Wells model. Articulation drills Wells model. These activities only require visual input and orthographic processing which will be sent to the semantic representations, to pick out the relevant matching words for picture naming and reading aloud, while signals from articulation drills are sent straight to motor programming to select the appropriate motor programs to produce correct speech output. What personal features might Body structure Personal features such as one’s personality, resilience, impact on a person’s Hearing determination, self-esteem, can impact one’s communication communication skills (ICF)? Health skills. They can affect the frequency, amount, and functions of one’s communication which can lead them to having Activity & Participation different levels of proficiencies in various domains of Suitable/accessible? communication. Possible triggers Environmental Background noise  Distraction Personal Personality Mood Self-esteem Week 2 What are the three main Innate The innate mechanism for language learning refers to our biological mechanisms for language learning? ○ Biological predisposition to acquire language through innate devices such as the ○ Recognise & Language Acquisition Device and Universal Grammar. generalise structures The cognitive mechanism consists of mental activities such as working Cognitive memory, attention, organisation, storage, which are involved in ○ Object comprehending information. permanence Environment The environmental factor refers to external language input that facilitate ○ Interaction and guide language acquisition, such as the languages we are exposed ○ Imitation to and the quality of the linguistic input. ○ Turns head to attend to caregiver Name and define each mechanism. The innate mechanism for language learning refers to our biological Give an example for each. predisposition to acquire language through innate devices and knowledge. Noam Chomsky’s nativist approach suggests that children are born with innate language knowledge. He suggested that the differences in grammar between languages of the world requires more than a Language Acquisition Device, such as hard-wired deep structures like the Universal Grammar. Overextension errors are usually observed in children, supporting the claim of an innate mechanism in the acquisition of language. The cognitive mechanism consists of mental activities such as working  memory, attention, organisation, storage, which are involved in comprehending information. Through cognitive development, children grow to be more capable of higher order processes. For example, when children are going through Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, they start storing mental representations of objects as they develop object permanence, which enables the lexicon to develop by linking labels to objects and hence, that’s when they start speaking their first words as well. The environmental factor refers to external language input that facilitate and guide language acquisition, such as the languages we are exposed to and the quality of the linguistic input. This mechanism is supported by behavioural psychologist, Skinner, and Interactionist psychologists, Vygotsky and Piaget, who suggest that language is acquired through principles of association, imitation and reinforcement through environmental input. Where the child’s cognitive mechanisms and their language environment form a dynamic relationship. This is supported by the critical period hypothesis where children who were deprived of language in their early years, were not able to catch up to age-matched language performance later in life. What are the main characteristics Paralinguistic Motherese/Fatherese is a type of speech adjustment adults make to of 'Motherese/ Fatherese’ for each ○ Slower pace increase children’s attention and engagement to their speech. linguistic domain? Provide examples ○ Varied intonation for - paralinguistic, lexical, ○ Higher pitch Motherese’s paralinguistic features include a slower pace, varied semantic, syntactic, conversational ○ Stress patterns intonation and loudness, combinations of stress patterns, higher pitch Semantics range, exaggeration of phonemes and facial expressions. ○ Focus on tangible objects For phonology, they tend to stress and lengthen vowel and consonant ○ Concrete sounds, and repeat syllables or short words. references to here & now As for the semantic factors, it is usually focused on concrete references to objects or events that are presently occurring, with a simpler choice of ○ Simpler choice of words and their word forms. words ○ Simple word For morphology, their words usually comprise of open class words such forms as nouns and verbs where they label objects and actions in their Phonology environment. ○ Lengthening of V & Cs They often have a simpler syntactic structure where their utterances are ○ Repetition of  syllables or short more targeted, using simple but well-formed phrases. words Morphology Lastly, they contain pragmatic features such as smiles, eye contact, and ○ Open class words large gestures to sustain their attention and engagement. ○ Verbs ○ Nouns Syntactic ○ More targeted ○ Fewer broken or run-on sentences (well-formed sentences) ○ Few complex utterances ○ More declarative statements ○ Imperatives & questions Pragmatics ○ Smiles ○ Eye contact ○ Large gestures Name the 3 theories that shaped 1. Nativist theory - Noam Noam Chomsky suggests that humans are born with innate, inherent our understanding of language Chomsky disposition to acquire language through our language acquisition learning? 2. Behaviourist - BF devices, which is governed by a universal grammar that underlies all Name the associated researcher Skinner languages, thereby taking the nativist approach. with each approach. What does 3. Interactionist theory - each theory entail? Express in one Vygotsky & Piaget BF Skinner, who posits the behaviourist theory, states that the sentence. environmental factors such as environmental reinforcement, imitation, correction and conditioning, play a more influential role in language learning than our genetic disposition. The interactionist theory, supported by Vygotsky and Piaget, emphasises on the interplay between a child’s innate abilities and their environment in language development. Vygotsky focuses on social interaction as key, with language learned through collaborative experiences in the Zone of Proximal Development. Piaget highlights that children construct knowledge through environmental interaction, with cognitive development in stages driving language learning. Both agree on the role  of interaction, but differ in the emphasis placed on social versus cognitive factors. List examples of cognitive Cognitive processes such as working memory, storage, organisation, approaches to language acquisition and use of knowledge, are key in facilitating receptive and development. What are the 3 expressive language development. By processing and organising examples of cognitive approaches? linguistic input and having retrieval processes for linguistic output. Slobin’s Operating Principles propose universal patterns in language acquisition that guide children's development of syntax and morphology. Children tend to focus on the ends of words, such as suffixes, and pay attention to word order and morpheme arrangement, avoiding exceptions that disrupt linguistic patterns. They systematically modify phonological forms through morphological changes and prefer using grammatical markers that clearly reflect semantic meaning. Additionally, children tend to generalise underlying semantic relations when these are marked in a clear and consistent way. Piaget states that children undergo several shifts in their thinking through cognitive development which parallels their language development. During the sensorimotor stage, children begin developing object permanence where they form mental representations of objects and concepts, associating them with their labels/names. This allows them to have the cognitive capacity to associate their mental representations with words, to label and represent things that are both present and absent. Cognitive constraints evidence the role of cognitive mechanisms in language development. Taxonomic bias, is the assumption that a label or name refers to a category rather than a specific item which leads to overextension errors where children extend their use of the word to a variety of things. Whereas mutual exclusivity bias is the assumption that an object or item can only have one reference or label, and rejects any other labels or names. Both taxonomic bias and mutual exclusivity bias demonstrate the role of cognitive mechanisms in language learning by guiding how children approach the task of mapping words to meanings. Describe Stackhouse & Well’s 1. Prelexical phase (up to 1 The Stackhouse and Wells (1997) Developmental Progression model Developmental progression model yr) focuses on children’s language development, particularly through 2. Whole-word phase (up to phonological development.  2 yrs) 3. Systematic simplification The first stage, the pre-lexical stage, occurs during the first year. This phase (2.5 - 4 yrs) stage focuses on receptive development where infants focus on the 4. Assembly phase (3-4 yrs) speech sounds without associating them with specific meanings, this 5. Metaphonological allows them to discriminate between different speech sounds and start phase (abt 5 years) developing phonological awareness. This enables them to babble, producing syllables influenced from their language input. In their second year, they enter the whole word phase where first words emerge. As they acquire more words, their babbling will be less frequent. Single word productions indicate that there are interactions between the input and output language processing systems, allowing the infant to draw from their semantic and phonological representations, translating them into motor programs to produce words. The systematic simplification phase is the next phase which occurs from 2.5 years till 4 years. Simplification and substitution processes start emerging as they experiment with words while simplifying them to match their current phonological abilities. During the assembly phase, which occurs during 3 to 4 years, children start assembling sounds together in more complex structures to produce more complex words. They also have better control of producing speech sounds, improving speech accuracy and intelligibility. The metaphonological phase, the last phase, occurs approximately at 5 years of age. During which, children develop the skill of phonological awareness allowing them to think about and manipulate phonological units such as identifying syllables and rhymes. Describe Locke’s theory of 1. Vocal learning (prenatal The vocal learning phase starts during prenatal till 5 months of age, with neurolinguistic development - 5 months) the targeted neurocognitive mechanism being specialisation in social 2. Utterance acquisition cognition. At this stage, they learn to attend and respond to properties of (5-7 months) the human voice and facial expressions. They become acquainted with 3. Analysis & Computation vocal cues that identify people, regulate social behaviour and (20-37 months) superficially characterise the expression of their native language 4. Integration & through prosody and sound segment. elaboration (3+ years) The utterance acquisition phase takes place during 5 to 7 months, with specialisation in social cognition as the targeted neurocognitive  mechanism. During this stage, infants are able to reproduce stereotyped utterances with prosodic patterns according to their perceptual biases and interests - where the length, stress patterns and intonation contours usually resemble their native language. They may produce words they frequently hear through babbling, first words and gestalts, from their stored utterances. This provides children with a set of utterances they can use appropriately in certain contexts. These utterances are “formulaic” as they are not able to segment speech sounds, and are only able to reproduce what they have heard. The analysis and computation phase occurs during 20 to 37 months, with the grammatical analysis mechanism as the focused neurocognitive mechanism, and phonology, morphology and syntax as the target domains. It involves analysing and computing the structure of material acquired in the store of utterances, to locate recurring elements within and across utterances to learn the rules which can be used to synthesise utterances such as pluralisation. It produces systematic rules that will eventually shape the organisation of incoming utterances, allowing for a larger lexicon. It also facilitates sentence segmentation, allowing them to pick up new nouns as they now are able to process words as unique combinations of phonemes. Essentially, infants learn the patterns of their native language and how to apply them. Lastly, the integration and elaboration phase starts at approximately 3 years of age with the target neurocognitive mechanisms being the social cognition and grammatical analysis mechanism. Their lexicon would have expanded with automised operations, allowing them to pick up system level rules which help further organise incoming utterances, facilitates word learning by categorising words and analysing their meanings. They no longer have to remember whole utterances or gestalts anymore as they can synthesise smaller linguistic units together now. Their pragmatic use of language would have expanded through experiences across different social settings, helping them to understand that the mental activities of others differ from their own. What are the differences between *fixed sequences but Stackhouse and Wells emphasize a cognitive-linguistic framework, where Stackhouse and Wells, and Locke’s characteristic in each stage speech development is closely tied to the interaction between cognitive developmental theories? can overlap mechanisms (e.g., memory, attention) and language processing abilities. Their model integrates both input processing (perceiving and interpreting sounds) and output processing (speech production) into a  holistic framework. Locke places more emphasis on biological maturation and neuroscience, proposing that early auditory input is critical for the neural systems responsible for language. His theory suggests that certain neural pathways for language develop early on, and these pathways are shaped by exposure to speech during sensitive periods. Locke also places emphasis on social interaction but frames it within a biological-critical period context. Focus: Stackhouse and Wells emphasize phonological and cognitive-linguistic processes, while Locke focuses on biological maturation and early auditory input. Stages: Stackhouse and Wells outline stages related to speech processing (input, output, and metalinguistic awareness), whereas Locke’s stages are grounded in neurobiological development and social interaction. Role of Social Interaction: Locke emphasizes the critical role of social interaction in language development, while Stackhouse and Wells focus more on cognitive processing of linguistic input and output. Week 3 - Vocal Learning (L) & Prelexical Phase (S&W) Summarise the development (1 month) of each month in a sentence. Interacts with caregivers through eye contact and turn-taking in facial expressions and vocalisations which mimics caregiver’s pitch and intonation. (2 months) Infants now can better recognise caregivers and prefer them over strangers, they also associate certain actions with different people. More meaningful cooing & vocalisations in response to people or to express excitement. (3 months) Infants can recognise & respond differently to different people. They now have increased attention span and can better engage in imitation & turn-taking, where there are longer pauses between vocalisations. They would have also started babbling syllables (canonical babbling) and would engage in proto-conversations. ○ There are 4 stages in proto-conversations. In the first stage of initialisation, parents initiate the interaction through eye contact or talking, where infants need to respond with alertness showing their ready for engagement by reciprocating eye contact or cooing. During the second stage of mutual orientation, both the infant and caregiver are engaged in each other’s actions through joint attention. They move onto the third stage of turn-taking where they pause and take turns, infants may respond with cooing or facial expressions - maintaining the flow of interactions. In the final stage of disengagement, the interaction comes to a natural end when the infant shows signs of disengagement such as looking away. (3-4 months) Infants have different cries indicating different needs, they are able to make different facial expressions (develops fear & anger, born with interest & disgust). This is where children start understanding simple rituals and games, allowing for more varied interactions. (5 months) Infants have developed better control over their head and neck, and are better able to reach out for things. There is increased variation in their vocalisations as they signal different attitudes and functions. They are seen to take turns in interactions, responding with canonical babbling.  (5-7 months) Infants’ canonical babbling starts becoming variegated babbling where they start changing up syllables and intonations as they explore speech sounds. Receptively, they are able to focus on the sound sequences frequently heard and recognise some spoken words. This is also where phonetic narrowing begins as they tune into their native language. What is the difference between In canonical babbling, infants produce the same repeated canonical (reduplicated) and consonant-vowel syllables in an utterance such as “baba” and variegated babbling? “nana”. Describe the difference and give an example of sound Whereas in variegated babbling, they produce more complex and different consonant-vowel combinations of different syllables in a patterns for each phase. single utterance such as “ba na bo”. Specify the onset of each Canonical - approximately 6 months, before 10 months babbling phase. Variegated - between 8-10 months What is newborn is capable of Newborns have a hearing frequency range of a human voice when interacting with where they prefer human voices over non-human sounds, and caregiver? can distinguish caregiver’s voice and face. What components of the At birth, infants’ auditory peripheral processing and Stackhouse and Wells' model speech/non-speech discrimination processing systems have are already developed at developed allowing them to process speech sounds. Their motor birth? execution programs would also have been developed, allowing them to produce primitive sounds such as crying. Describe the development of Phonological At the end of 6 months when infants start babbling, their Stackhouse and Wells’ representation phonological representation and motor programming systems development from 0-6 months Semantic have begun developing allowing them to babble the speech representation sounds in their environment.  Motor programming Moto program Week 4 When does canonical babbling change to Between 8 - 10 months variegated babbling? Explain whether variegated babbling does Yes, variegated babbling would resemble the or does not resemble the sound patterns of sound patterns of the infant’s input language. the infant’s input language. Give an example At 6 months, phonetic narrowing occurs where to support your answer. infants start to only tune into their native phoneme sounds. Their input language from caregivers would also influence their phonological representations which later translates to motor programming for infants to produce speech. For example, their variegated babbling can resemble the way their caregivers say “mama” in terms of its intonation contours, prosody, and pitch. Summarise the development of each (7 months) month in a sentence. Infants responds to interactional partners and prefers caregivers when other people are present (more proto-conversations) (8 months) This is where joint attention emerges as caregivers engage infants with more references to the environment, where children’s semantic representations and lexicon further develop through  semantic associations. (9 months) Infants imitate simple motor movements such as waving and raising their hands to be carried. They are also more capable of more complex social interactions and turn-taking - proto conversations and engagement with their environment. (10 months) As their ability for joint attention develops, their gaze tends to follow maternal pointing allowing for fast mapping to occur. (semantic reinforcement) (11 months) Infants start paying more attention and engage more with their environmental stimuli such as nearby toys and objects. Where infants typically looks at the object being named by their caregivers. (12 months) Infants are capable of coordinating their gaze and vocalisations meaningfully, such as looking at their dad and calling him “dada”. This shows that their language input and output systems have developed connected pathways. What can development of communicative Communicative intent can be described as intent in the infant be described as? Give an goal directed behaviour, allowing infants to example to support your answer. attain their goals. Requesting is a form of  communicative intent where infants use to attain things they want such as milk, an infant can intentionally engage in eye contact with their caregiver while gesturing to the milk bottle. This is possible as they have understood the concept of cause and effect, where their actions can be used to control the environment (eg, crying to get their caregiver’s attention) What stages does the 'development of Per-locutionary (0-8) During the pre-locutionary stage, at 0-8 intentionality’ entail. State the onset of the ○ Attentional months, infants progress from attentional infant’s age for each stage. interactions interactions to contingency interactions. ○ Contingency Attentional interactions consist of infants interations responding to different stimuli with Il-locutionary (8-12) undifferentiated behaviours such as crying. In ○ Differentiated contingency interactions, infants direct their interactions undifferentiated behaviours to gain and ○ Emergence of sustain attention from caregivers. intentional communication The il-locutionary stage occurs between 8 to 12 ○ Show objects (social months which consists of 5 different elements. engagement) Infants start to exhibit differentiated ○ Full range of gestures interactions through exploration. This leads to emergence of intentional communication ○ Functional gestures where infants use vocalisations and Locutionary (12+) conversational gestures to communicate, such as engaging in eye contact and turn-taking. When their intentions are not understood, they repeat the behaviour until they achieve their goals. More social engagement can be seen later on as they show objects to adults, the start of joint attention development. They start using full range of gestures picked up from their environment, both conventional and unconventional to aid their communication attempts - such as shaking their head. They  grow to eventually use functional gestures such as pointing and reaching. At the locutionary stage, infants begin using single word utterances to communicate. Gestures and words can occur together or separately to support the infant’s communication. Describe the development of joint attention 1. Diexical Joint attention is the simultaneous & explain the 3 aspects 2. Indicating engagement between two or more individuals 3. Naming in mental focus on a single external object of focus. It is made up of indicating, deixis and naming. Indicating can be in the form of gestures or vocalisations where they indicate what the infant is attending to, such as pointing to a bird. Deixis contains reference words, spatial, temporal and interpersonal information which rely on contextual cues, usually referring to objects or events in the present, such as “here” or “this”. Naming is the act of identifying or labelling the referent infants are attending to to emphasise their focus, such as calling out “bird” as they tend to it. Describe the model of speech processing Production limited by motor Even though infants’ speech production is execution capacity limited by their motor execution capacity, they Able to analyse & segment are able to receptively analyse and segment speech sequences speech sequences such as sentences, where receptively, minimally stored they are stored minimally as words rather than as words phonemes. However, their motor programs still Motor programs consist of consist mostly of gestalts or chunks of words gestalts rather than individual words. Describe the process of word learning Bracketing For word learning to occur, children need to  Clustering identify recurring meaningful patterns from Vocabulary acquisition the incoming speech stream and store them in Fast mapping long-term memory so that they are recognised Slow mapping as familiar words. Bracketing refers to infants using prosody or rhythm to determine divisions in clauses or phrases, allowing them to determine the word class based on its order. Clustering is used to recognise phoneme sounds to identify divisions in words as they are made up of different sequences of sounds. Vocabulary acquisition is the process of storing representations of familiar sequences of speech sounds in the lexicon and associating them with specific meanings. This can occur either through fast or slow mapping. Fast mapping is the quick process of learning the name of a referent by simultaneously attending to it and hearing its label or name, after one exposure. Slow mapping occurs over repeated exposures to the referent and name, deepening the semantic associations with the speech sounds and correcting any over or under extensions. List the main components of the Baddeley Phonological loop The Baddeley model holds 4 different types of model and explain the overall function of the Viso-spatial sketchpad information in the working memory, the model. Episodic buffer phonological loop for verbal information, which contains both the phonological store and articulatory process, the visuo-sptail sketchpad which processes visual information through the visual cache processing shape  and colour, while the inner scribe records arrangements of objects and transfers to central executive which essentially acts as the organisation system that directs the pathway of incoming input. The episodic buffer is where the short term and long term memory interact. Contributing factors to poor vocabulary Poor memory (long-term When children have trouble establishing a memory) long-term phonological representation with Unable to segment into the referent and name, they are unable to smaller units retain the information in their lexicon or Incorrect semantic referent long-term storage and hence will not be able to retrieve the semantic associations when they hear or read the word. They may also have trouble segmenting incoming speech streams into small lexical units which thereby affects how it is later organised and stored in their lexicon, therefore later on affecting their lexical retrieval or access. They may also have processed/associated the incorrect semantic referent during fast mapping and thereby will not be able to retrieve the corresponding meaning. Describe the development of Stackhouse After 12 months, their processing systems have and Wells’ development from 6-12 months fully developed. Through 6-12 months, their phonetic recognition has developed through receiving phonetic input from their native language along with motor programs to realise the phonological patterns to produce the words in their lexicon/semantic representations. They would also have more motor plans stored through babbling and producing their first words. First words  indicate that their input and output systems are now connected. Their lexical representations now include phonological and semantic representations and motor programs to realise them. Week 5 Explain the difference Consistent use in the appropriate context ‘True words’ need to phonetically resemble between a vocalisation In the presence of the referent adult form where they are used in the presence and a ‘true word’. Phonetically resembles adult form of the referent with consistent use in the appropriate context, such as an infant calling a dog when they see one. What does the term ‘Fast Infer a connection Fast mapping is the immediate process of a Mapping’ mean in the Between a word & its referent child inferring a connection between a word context of word Referred to and its referent referred to only after one learning? Please give a Only after one exposure exposure, where nouns are easier to fast map definition and an then verbs as they are concrete items that the example. child can attend while verbs are usually said before or after the action. For example, when a child is tending to an apple and simultaneously hears the spoken name “apple”, the child would have inferred the connection and that visual representation will now be associated with the word “apple” What does the term ‘Slow Multiple exposures Slow mapping is a process of refinement and Mapping’ mean in the Corrects over & under extension fine tuning through repeated exposures. This context of word helps in correcting over and under extensions learning? Please give a through experiences with the referent and definition and an name. Over extensions occur when children’s example. stored meanings of the referent are too broad when compared to the adult meaning, such as  using the reference “apple” to refer to all fruits. Whereas under extension refers to children having an overly restricted meaning associated with a referent, where they are unable to accept any other names for them, such as understanding the word “chair” only to refer to their high chair rather than associating them with other types of chairs. Experiences with different types of referents correct their understanding and semantic associations. Word learning Extendability principle What are the Reference principle There are three fundamental principles that fundamental Whole-object principle guide children's word learning. The Referential principles for word Principle suggests that children recognize learning words are used to refer to things in the world, Over-extension understanding that each word is associated What is the Under- extension with a specific object or concept. The process for word Extendibility Principle allows children to apply a learning single word to a category of similar objects rather than just one instance. For example, the word "table" can refer to various types of tables, not just a particular one. Lastly, the Whole-Object Principle leads children to assume that a word refers to an entire object rather than just a part of it. For instance, when learning the word "bottle," a child will generally interpret it as referring to the whole bottle, rather than just a part like the cap. Together, these principles shape the way children make sense of language and the world around them. Word learning involves three key processes: over-extension, under-extension, and word mortality. Over-extension occurs when children attribute overly broad meanings to words, applying them to a wider range of referents  than adults would, such as using "dog" to refer to all four-legged animals. In contrast, under-extension happens when children apply a word too narrowly, restricting its meaning to a single referent and not accepting other appropriate uses, such as using "bottle" only for their own specific bottle. Word mortality refers to the phenomenon where words from a child's early vocabulary may drop out if they are not used or reinforced over time, becoming inactive in the child's lexicon. List the 5 simplification 5 simplifications Reduplication is a typical phonological error patterns and 4 Reduplication (complete & partial) produced by children to simplify a complex substitution processes, Consonant harmony word. Complete reduplication is the complete and provide examples ○ Alveolar repetition of one adult target syllable to realise (add in age range these ○ Velar the other syllables in a word, while partial errors occur in) ○ Nasal reduplication is the partial repetition of an Syllable deletion adult target syllable in the child’s realisation of Context sensitive voicing other syllables of the word. Either target vowel Diminutives or consonant is repeated (eg, casa for castle). 4 substitutions Consonant harmony is a type of phonological process in which children simplify the Fronting pronunciation of words by making the Gliding consonants within a word share similar Stopping phonetic features, particularly in terms of their Vowel neutralisation place of articulation as they learn to coordinate their articulators. Velar Harmony: The child replaces all consonants in the word with sounds that are produced in the velar region (back of the mouth). Example: "dog" becomes "gog." Alveolar Harmony: The child changes all consonants to be produced in the  alveolar region (just behind the teeth). Example: "cat" becomes "tat." Nasal Harmony: Consonants that are not nasal (like "b" or "d") become nasalized to match other nasal sounds in the word. Example: "bunny" becomes "munny." Syllable deletion refers to the omission of a syllable within a word to simplify the pronunciation of a word, either through the process of final-consonant deletion or cluster reduction. Final consonant deletion involves omitting the final consonant at the ending of a word. Cluster reduction refers to deleting a syllable from a group of clustered phonemes which can occur at the initial (tree - tee), medial (umbrella - umbella) or final part of a word (jump - jup). Context-sensitive voicing occurs when children produce voiceless sounds as their voiced counterparts. Diminutives as a simplification error occur when a child or language learner uses a diminutive form of a word inappropriately, such as calling a dog "doggie" in contexts where it may not fit. This reflects their developmental stage, as they experiment with language and favor simpler, more affectionate forms. Fronting is a phonological substitution error where sounds that are typically produced at the back of the mouth, such as /k/ and /g/, are replaced with sounds produced at the front, like /t/ and /d/. For example, a child might say "tat" instead of "cat" or "do" instead of "go,"  indicating a developmental stage in speech sound acquisition. Gliding is a substitution error where liquid sounds, such as /l/ and /r/, are replaced with glide sounds like /w/ and /j/. For instance, a child might say "wabbit" instead of "rabbit" or "yeyo" instead of "yellow," which often occurs as part of normal language development. Stopping is a substitution error where fricative sounds, such as /f/, /v/, /s/, and /z/, are replaced with stop sounds like /p/, /b/, /t/, and /d/. An example is a child saying "tun" instead of "sun" or "pat" instead of "fat," reflecting an earlier developmental phase in mastering speech sounds. Vowel neutralisation is a substitution error where distinct vowel sounds are replaced with a more neutral or central vowel, often leading to a loss of differentiation between words. For example, a child might say "buh" for both "bit" and "bet," resulting in a lack of clarity in distinguishing between similar-sounding words, which is common in early language development. In the Stackhouse & Systematic simplification errors occur in the Wells developmental third stage of Stackhouse & Wells phase model, at what developmental model, when children are 2.5 to stage does systematic 4 years of age. It occurs after the whole-word simplification errors phase where children are developing their occur? control of their articulators and simplify complex sounds to adapt to their current motor execution capacity. Which stage do these These simplification errors occur during the errors occur according utterance acquisition phase as children start to the Locke model? producing speech utterances from their phonological and semantic representations but have yet to analyse and segmentise incoming speech stream to manipulate individual phonemes with their articulators. Describe pragmatic development from 12-24 months List the 9 early 1. Requesting (action) pragmatic functions with 2. Requesting (answer) examples (refer to 3. Protesting research) 4. Calling 5. Answering 6. Labelling 7. Repeating 8. Practising 9. Greeting  Week 6 Summarise each stage of Browns stage 4 (47 months+) Brown’s stages with a sentence. What is ‘Mean Length of MLU, the Mean Length of Utterance, is the moderate Utterance’ (MLU)? predictor of syntactic complexity of utterances for young English speaking children, where it is calculated by dividing the number of morphemes in an utterance by the total number of utterances produced. What is an average ‘MLU’ in In Australia, preschool children are of 4-5 years of age pre-school children? (Ch. 9, therefore the average MLU is 4.5+. Owens) How many stages are there in Brown’s Model of Morphology and Syntax Development? (see Brown , 1973, and a summary in the LinguiSystems resource). What are the key semantic Noun & verb definitions Preschoolers define nouns by their functional properties, what milestones in pre-schoolers it can do, use properties, what they are used for, and & what related theoretical locational properties, where they can be found or used. They framework links these define verbs by who or what does the action such as the milestones best? subject, to who or what it’s done to, the object and where, when and with what it is done, the execution of the action. What are the key pragmatic Keys to successful conversations Preschoolers develop key pragmatic skills that help facilitate milestones in pre-schoolers Social cognition (context) social connections. They develop social cognition which refers & what theoretical Recognitive communication to their knowledge of people, relationships, events helping framework links these breakdowns them to understand the context of different situations and milestones best? (e.g., see Awareness of communication how to act. They also develop awareness of their LinguiSystems) partners (listener’s awareness) communication partners such as taking into account their Turn-taking background or shared knowledge and omitting information that is known to them both. They have also developed the skills to maintain a conversation through appropriate Following 3-step directions turn-taking by having longer pauses or using filler words to without cues acknowledge their partner’s turn. They are able to recognise Direct requests with justification communication breakdowns and offer further explanations to Uses words to invite others to aid their partner’s understanding. As their attention span has play and resolve disputes grown, they are now better able to initiate and maintain topics. What can be changed at Nouns The meaning of nouns can be modified at the morphological word level (nouns & verbs) Possessive level in 4 ways. They can be pluralised with plural markers, be to change the meaning of Plural marked as a possession with possessive markers, and can be the word? Comparative used for comparison using superlative and comparative Superlative markers. Verbs Similarly, the meanings of verbs can also be modified  Present-progressive morphologically in four ways: they can indicate present Third person singular progressive actions, represent actions performed by a third Past tense person, denote actions completed in the past through tense Contracted markers, and use contractions to combine two words into one. these morphological modifications primarily involve the combination of auxiliary verbs with pronouns, negations, and other verbs to create shorter forms What makes up a lexical Phonological representation of a word? Semantic Syntactic Week 8 Association of the Discourse processing Levelt’s model to In Levelt’s speech processing model, the discourse processor narrative plays a crucial role in interpreting parsed speech to uncover its intended meaning. Key grammatical structures, such as tense markers, are processed and analyzed within the formulator, which prepares the speech output. The processed information is then relayed to the discourse model, where the context and structure of the narrative are considered. Through exposure to language, particularly in the form of storytelling, children gain knowledge of narrative structures, including elements such as character, setting, plot, and resolution. This understanding allows the discourse model to effectively process parsed speech, identifying narrative elements that signify different types of narratives. As a result, the discourse processor can derive inferred intent and meaning, facilitating the construction of coherent and meaningful  narratives. Key Points Explained: 1. Discourse Processor: This component interprets the meaning behind spoken language, focusing on inferred intent and overall comprehension. 2. Formulator: Here, grammatical structures are processed, allowing for the preparation of speech based on the identified elements. 3. Narrative Elements: Exposure to storytelling helps children recognize and organize narrative components, aiding their ability to construct and comprehend narratives. 4. Association and Processing: The model illustrates how different components of speech processing work together to analyze and construct narratives, highlighting the importance of language exposure in developing narrative understanding. According to Applebee, Cenering According to Applebee, there are 6 stages child must progress what are the main Parts of the story through to use narrative discourse confidently. stages a child must relating to a central progress through to use idea At 2 years of age, infants start the Heaps stage where they narrative discourse present a series of present tense simple sentences which confidently? Chaining describe unrelated actions or events. Temporal or logical links relate to They then progress to the Sequences stage from 2 to 3 years successive events where the centering strategy is evident as their series of statements now have some association to a central theme such 1. Heaps (2 yrs) as a character, topic or setting. 2. Sequences (2-3 yrs) 3. Primitive Narratives During 3 to 4 years, they progress through the primitive (3-4 yrs) narrative stage, where the association to the central theme is 4. Unfocused chains (3.5 more evident where they may include more detailed information  - 4.5yrs) of the characters or settings that include complementary links. 5. Focused chains (4-5 However, there is no use of explicit causal links that exhibit the yrs) chaining of events. 6. True narrative (5.5 - 7yrs) At 3.5 to 4.5 years, some children may go through the Unfocused Chain stage where the chaining strategy is evident, showcasing the temporal relationships such that the sequence of events are linked logically with the use of conjunctions. However, it does not contain a central theme. Essentially, the narrative is filled with a series of ongoing events without a central theme that ties it altogether. At 4 to 5 years, centering and chaining elements are evident that show a concrete centre, with a logical sequence of events that contain temporal relationships. But it has a limited ending and the ending cannot be predicted as it does not connect to the beginning of the narrative. Finally at 5.5 to 7 years, children develop skills for a true narrative. Centering and chaining elements have developed and are evident with a true sequence of events that include implicit or explicit causal relationships, a clearer central theme or plot with story schema present such as have a climax and a problem in the story that is resolved in the end. Afterwards, at 7 to 11 years they go through the summarisation stage which may involve comprehending prepositions, establishing connectives between these propositions, formulating concise and cohesive representation. They begin developing skills for complex stories at 11-12 years, analyse story elements at 13-15 years and eventually enter the generalisation phase at 16 years. Describe Stein & Glenn’s 1. Isolated description Stein and Glenn’s model contains 7 narrative levels. Children Narrative Levels 2. Descriptive sequence start at the isolated description where children provide single, 3. Action sequence isolated descriptions of actions or objects with no connection or 4. Reactive sequence sequencing between them. 5. Abbreviated episode 6. Complete episode They move onto the Descriptive Sequences level where children 7. Complex episode list actions or descriptions that are loosely related without causal or temporal connections. These descriptions are somewhat connected through their centering around the same thing but they still do not form a true story. At the Action Sequences level, children begin to string together a series of actions in a sequence which are linked by temporal order, rather than cause and effect relationships. (listed in order but do not offer explanation) During the next level of reactive sequences, children start introducing basic cause and effect relationships in their statements where one action leads to another. However, their narrative lacks a purposeful goal or resolution at the end. At the Abbreviated Episodes level, children start expanding the plot of their narratives by including an implicit problem or goal, along with characters with more depths. However, the steps taken to resolve the problem or achieve the goal may not be explicitly stated. Finally, at the level of Complete Episodes, children include the attempts of achieving the goal and