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Journalism: A Historical Overview History of Journalism The earliest known journalistic product was the Acta Diurna, a news sheet from ancient Rome. The Acta Diurna recorded important daily events such as public speeches. In China during the Tang dynasty, a court...

Journalism: A Historical Overview History of Journalism The earliest known journalistic product was the Acta Diurna, a news sheet from ancient Rome. The Acta Diurna recorded important daily events such as public speeches. In China during the Tang dynasty, a court circular called a bao, or “report,” was issued to government officials. The first regularly published newspapers appeared in German cities and in Antwerp about 1609. The first English newspaper, the Weekly Newes, was published in 1622. One of the first daily newspapers, The Daily Courant, appeared in 1702. Historical Publishing Newspapers in the 18th century enjoyed the reportorial freedom and indispensable function. The spread of literacy and the introduction of steam- and then electric-driven presses led to the daily circulation of newspapers rising from the thousands to the hundreds and eventually to the millions. Magazines, which started in the 17th century as learned journals, began to feature opinion- forming articles on current affairs. The cost of large-scale news gathering led to the formation of news agencies. The invention of the telegraph, then radio, and television brought about a great increase in the speed and timeliness of journalistic activity. Satellites and later the Internet were used for the long-distance transmission of journalistic information in the late 20th century. The Profession Journalism in the 20th century was marked by a growing sense of professionalism. An organization of working journalists began as early as 1883, with the foundation of England’s chartered Institute of Journalists. The first university course in journalism was given at the University of Missouri (Columbia) in 1879–84. The advent of motion pictures, radio, and television as news media called for an ever- increasing battery of new skills and techniques in gathering and presenting the news. The literature of the subject became copious and varied by the late 20th century. Present-day Journalism The term “hard news” gained currency to distinguish items of definite news value from others of marginal significance. By the mid-1960s most newspapers, particularly evening and Sunday editions, were relying heavily on magazine techniques, except for their content of “hard news,” where the traditional rule of objectivity still applied. Journalism in Book Form The proliferation of paperback books during the decades after World War II gave impetus to the journalistic book.  History of JOURNALISM in the PHILIPPINES 16th Century- EARLY YEARS It was in the year 1637 when the "Father of Filipino Printing", Tomas Pinpin, launched the first Philippine newsletter called "Successos Felices" (Fortunate Events). In 1799, following Pinpin's debut in printing, he again came up with his Hojas Volantes or "flying sheets". "Del Superior Govierno," was launched by Gov. Fernandez del Forgueras on August 8, 1811. "La Esperanza" was released in 1846, which was edited by Felipe Lacorte and Evaristo Calderon, lasted only for three years. However, it gave way to the birth of other dailies such as "La Estrella" in 1847 and "Diario de Manila" in 1848. Until 1862, a Tagalog publisher, Mariano Sevilla, founded El Catolico Filipino. The year 1887 marked the beginning of a more opinionated journalism in the Philippines on April 1, 1887 with the birth of La Opinion. 1889- PERIOD OF REVOLUTION In February 19, 1889 La Solidaridad came out as the "mouthpiece of the revolution." Katipuneros established "Ang Kalayaan" (Liberty) on January 1, 1896. It was edited by Pio Valenzuela, Emilio Jacinto and Andres Bonifacio. Other revolutionary papers that emerged in those times were El Heraldo de Iloilo on January 1, 1898 and La Libertad on June 20, 1898. Also in the same year, La Independencia was founded on September 3 by Gen. Antonio Luna and Fernando Ma. Guerrero. Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, in his effort to unify his armies, put up his own revolutionary organ called "El Heraldo de la Revolucion" on September 28, 1898. The arrival of more American fleets on August 13, 1898, American editors aboard Admiral Dewey's flagship came up with the paper, Bounding Billow. 1898- AMERICAN COLONIALISM Manila Times of Thomas Gowan was established on October 11, 1898. TVT (Taliba-La Vanguardia-Tribune) owned by Alejandro Roces, Sr., later by his son Ramon Roces, known as the "father of modern journalism" was considered the first newspaper chain in the Philippines in the 1920s. Manila Tribune was established by Roces on April 1, 1925, with Carlos P. Romulo as editor. Another American newspaper issued that time was the "oldest existing newspaper", The Manila Daily Bulletin, established by Carson Taylor in February 1, 1900. 1942- JAPANESE OCCUPATION TVT which was left to operate however it was controlled and functioned as "solely for the benefit of the Japanese state" on October 12, 1942.  Liwayway was allowed to be published regularly but under censorship of the Japanese Imperial Army. 1945- POST LIBERATION Manila Free Philippines became the first post-Liberation newspaper published by the US Office of War Information. Those that were revived included The Manila Bulletin, further developed in 1947, Philippines Herald, Manila Chronicle, started as "The People's Newspaper" and was later bought by Eugenio Lopez in 1947 and Manila Times, reestablished by the Roces family. Likewise, Ramon Roces, son of Don Alejandro, also put out Manila's first afternoon newspaper called Evening News. Furthermore, his Graphic, renamed as Kislap- Graphic,Liwayway and vernacular sister publications: Bisaya, Bannawag and Hiligaynon were also re-launched. 1972- MARTIAL LAW More than three decades of free press, on September 21, 1972 upon the declaration of Martial Law, publications were once again halted from their liberal operations.. It was in this period when the likes Geny Lopez, Jr., Chino Roces, Max V. Soliven, Luis Beltran, Teodoro Locsin, Jose Diokno, Benigno Aquino, Jr. and others were detained at Camp Crame. 1986- CONTEMPORARY TIMES When the Marcos' administration ended because of the first People Power revolt, the press was once again freed. Manila Times by Ramon Roces decided to revive the paper on January 1986, registered under his grandson, Alfredo R. Guerrero. He also brought back La Vanguardia Publishing Co., Inc. which was for his other grandson, Ramon R. Davila. The Manila Chronicle was re-established with publisher Joaquin "Chino" Roces and editor Amando Doronilla. THEORIES OF JOURNALISM Four Theories of the Press: A Framework for Understanding Journalism and Society 1. Normative Theories Authoritarian Theory of Journalism Originated in England in the 16th and 17th centuries, influenced by thinkers like Plato, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Hegel. The press is restricted to maintain absolute authority, with the main purpose of journalism being to support and advance government policies.  The authoritarian theory of journalism is prevalent in regions like Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Libertarian Theory of Journalism Originated in England and the United States in the 17th century, opposing the authoritarian doctrine. The concept of a libertarian press is based on the writings of John Stuart Mill, John Milton, John Locke, and philosophical principles of rationalism and natural rights. The libertarian view emphasizes the independence of news media to help discover truth and place a check on government. The media are privately owned and free to inform, criticize, entertain, and sell, but are barred from defamation, obscenity, indecency, and wartime sedition. Social Responsibility Theory of Journalism A modification of the libertarian notion, born in the 1940s in the United States, sees the chief purpose of journalism as raising conflict to the plane of discussion rather than checking government. The theory is controlled by community opinion, consumer action, and professional ethics, with journalists avoiding serious invasion of privacy rights and vital social interests. The theory guides most journalism operating in the United States. Soviet Communist Theory of Journalism Flowed from the thoughts of Marx, Lenin, and Joseph Stalin with a mixture of Hegel and nineteenth-century Russian thinking. Journalism in the Communist model functions to transmit governmental social policy rather than to search for truth. Communist news media are considered integral parts of the state, controlled by the Communist party government apparatus. The Soviet news media model disapproves of private ownership, removes the profit motive, and emphasizes media as instruments of government. 2. Gatekeeping Theory Gatekeeping theory examines how information is filtered and selected for publication by journalists and editors. It highlights the process by which certain events and stories are deemed newsworthy while others are not. 3. Agenda-Setting Theory This theory posits that the media doesn't tell people what to think but rather what to think about. By focusing on certain issues, the media shapes the public agenda and influences what topics are considered important. 4. Framing Theory Framing theory explores how the media presents and structures news stories. The way information is framed influences how audiences interpret and understand issues and events. 5. Uses and Gratifications Theory This theory examines how individuals use media to satisfy various needs and desires, such as information, entertainment, personal identity, and social integration. 6. Cultivation Theory Developed by George Gerbner, cultivation theory suggests that long-term exposure to media content, particularly television, shapes an individual's perceptions of reality, often aligning them with the media's portrayals. 7. Spiral of Silence Theory Proposed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory posits that people are less likely to express their opinions if they perceive themselves to be in the minority, leading to a silencing of dissenting views and a reinforcement of dominant perspectives. 8. Critical Theory Critical theory, particularly as it applies to journalism, examines the power structures and ideological forces that influence media content and practices. It often critiques the role of media in perpetuating social inequalities and corporate interests. 9. Public Journalism Theory Also known as civic journalism, this theory advocates for a journalism that actively engages with the community, encourages public participation, and focuses on solutions-oriented reporting to address community issues. 10. Developmental Journalism Developmental journalism emphasizes the role of media in promoting national development, particularly in developing countries. It often involves a focus on issues such as education, health, and economic progress, and may support government policies aimed at development. The Five Concepts Typology of Journalism Introduced by media scholar William Hachten in 1981, the Five Concepts typology categorizes global journalism into five distinct theories: Western, revolutionary, developmental, authoritarian, and communist. Western theory combines elements of libertarianism and social responsibility, stating that news media should not be interfered with by the government. It emphasizes the press's right to report, comment, and criticize government without restraints. The theory is practiced in democracies with market economies with established traditional of independent journalism. Examples include Britain, Canada, Japan, and the United States. The revolutionary concept is concerned with illegal and subversive communication, using news media to overthrow a government or wrest control from alien or rejected rulers. Examples include the Pravda in the 1917 Russian Revolution and the underground press in Nazi-occupied France. The developmental concept assumes that news media can function as multipliers of efforts to promote social change. It posits that individual rights are subordinate to the larger goals of nation-building.  Development journalism should support authority rather than criticize or challenge it. News media freedom can be restricted according to the development needs of the society. The authoritarian and communist concepts in Hachten’s classification of news media systems are variations of the traditional authoritarianism. In authoritarian societies, diversity of views is wasteful and irresponsible, while consensus is a sensible goal for journalism. The communist news media system is planned and built as part of change and to help accomplish change. Three Movements of Journalism Theory Market Journalism: Seeks truth, is socially responsible, informs people impartially, supports capitalism, and acts as a government watchdog. Journalists must report fairly and objectively. No national media policy is needed for free journalism. Linked to the First or Western World. Marxist Journalism: Seeks truth and social responsibility. Media educates people in a political way and demands support for socialism. Journalists are expected to report objectively about the realities of experience. Views news media as part of the government. Journalists are required to report the opinions of all people, not just the rich. Journalists are required to counter oppression. Advancing Journalism: Similar to the Marxist movement, with some variations. Journalists serve the people by seeking beneficial social change in partnership with the government. News media are unifying forces that serve the interests of the people. Journalists are part of two-way exchanges, not merely one-way flow of information. News media freedom is less important than the viability of the nation. A national media policy is needed to safeguard journalistic freedom. Theoretical Perspectives on Journalism Theorized by L. John Martin and Anju Grover Chaudhary. Classified press systems based on political designations of First, Second, and Third World. JOURNALISTIC FACTS, FIGURES, AND STATISTICS 45 journalists were killed worldwide in 2023. After a peak in 2012 when 147 journalists were killed, thankfully the numbers decreased, and 2021 saw the lowest number of journalists killed since 2003. The yearly number of imprisoned journalists regularly surpasses 250 worldwide, and arrests and kidnappings are also common. Between 2014 and 2019, almost 1,500 journalists were arrested and close to 400 were kidnapped, highlighting the harsh reality for many media workers around the world.  During a 2023 survey, 50 percent of respondents from 28 countries across the world stated that they trusted the media as a source of reliable information, down from 51 percent in 2020 but the same as in 2021 and 2022. The reported also revealed that the country with the most trust in media was China, whereas the United Kingdom fared the poorest in that regard with just 31 percent of respondents saying that they had faith in the media. Most trusted media source worldwide: Search engines Country with the most trust in journalists: Indonesia Country with the least trust in journalists: Hungary Number of imprisoned journalists worldwide: 320 Region with the most journalists who experienced sexual harassment: Central America Region with the largest number of journalists killed: Arab States Journalists blocking PR communications due to receiving inaccurate information worldwide: 60% Journalists with a workload of five or more topics worldwide: 43% Journalists submitting 10 or more posts per week worldwide: 29% JOURNALISTIC FACTS, FIGURES AND STATISTICS IN THE PHILIPPINES Thousands of press freedom violations have been recorded under Marcos's rule, including the killing of two radio commentators and increased use of legal action against journalists. Death threats and surprise visits to journalists' homes have been sent, stoking fears of surveillance. 'Red-tagging' of journalists, branding them as communist or terrorist, persists, targeting mainstream and alternative media. Sonshine Media Network International (SMNI), a far-right broadcast network, is among those behind the systematic red-tagging. The National Union of Journalists of the Philippines (NUJP) launched Project Lawfare to defend journalists against cyber libel and other criminal cases. Rappler, a site repeatedly attacked by Duterte, has been acquitted of tax evasion but has been upheld for cyber libel and increased prison sentences. Radio and TV brands remain the most popular media in the Philippines, with GMA Network having a dominant audience share. ABS-CBN Corp., a longtime competitor, continues to broadcast online and via various agreements. ALLTV, owned by business mogul Manuel Villar, debuted on the frequency once assigned to ABS-CBN and tied up with CNN Philippines to broadcast the recently revived hourlong News Night. The Philippine Press Institute converted the PPI News Commons into a news aggregator to attract ads. TikTok has grown the fastest among the social media platforms, accessed for news now by 21% compared with only 2% in 2020. Pay for online news: 16% Trust in news overall: 38% Trust in news issue: 43% Share news via social, messaging or email: 47%  RSF World Press Freedom Index: 132/180: Score 46.21 Manila HS/Araullo HS – The Coconut Editor: Carlos E. Romulo College Folio Written: August 1910 Published: Oct 1910 1st poetry published: Faded Ricefields Last poetry published: Pagsanjan Falls First Philippine newspaper: Gaceta Del Sperior Gobierno UST The Varsitarian: The oldest school publication in the Philippines NEWS WRITING Direct to the point, timely, relevant, objective Elements: Proximity Significance Conflict/Controversy Prominence Timeliness Rarety Impact Structure: Headline Byline Lead Body Inverted pyramid Quotes Transition Roles: Voice Awareness Advocacy Responsibility Leads: Conventional – WHs question Grammatical: Prepositional phrase lead, gerundial phrase, participial phrase, infinitive phrase lead Novelty lead: Astonisher lead, contrast lead, epigram lead, parody lead, picture lead, descriptive lead, background lead