Reviewer_Philo_1st-Quarter.docx

**INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** **Reviewer (First Quarter)** **LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY (BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY)** - **Philosophy** - Greek words- Philo (Love) and Sofia (Wisdom) - Science that studies beings in their ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the...

**INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** **Reviewer (First Quarter)** **LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY (BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY)** - **Philosophy** - Greek words- Philo (Love) and Sofia (Wisdom) - Science that studies beings in their ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of human reason alone. - Beings- all things that exists. - Material Beings- stones, trees, buildings, - Immaterial Beings- soul, spirit - Concerned with a reason and principles that account for everything that exists. - Basic Questions: - What is the origin of the world of everything that exists? - Why do these things exist, rather than not exist at all? - Is there God? If so, how can we justify the goodness of God in the face of evil? - What is the meaning and purpose of life? Why do we have to suffer? - **Branches of Philosophy** 1. **Metaphysics** - Meta (beyond/after) - Physika (physical/nature) - Study the things beyond the physical; concepts or things that cannot be experienced. - It investigates the existence of universe and of all things in it. - Basic Questions: - How did universe come to existence? - What is existence and non- existence? - What kind of things exist in the world? - Does God exist? - Do souls exist? 2. **Epistemology** - Episteme (knowledge) Logos (study) - Study of nature and scope of knowledge and justified belief. - Study of our method of acquiring knowledge. - How do we know? - Required in order to be able to determine the true from false. - Basic Questions: - What is knowledge? - Is it possible to have knowledge at all? - Does reason provide us with knowledge of the world independently of experience? - Does our knowledge represent reality as it really is? 3. **Logic** - Logos (science of correct thinking) - Study of the principles and criteria of a valid argument - Distinguish sound or good reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning. - Basic Questions: - What is correct reasoning? - What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one? - How can we detect fallacy in argument? 4. **Ethics** - Ethos (habit) - Morality of human action - How human persons ought to act, and the search for a definition of a right conduct, and good life. - Basic Questions: - Is there a right or wrong? - What makes an action morally right and wrong? - What is good? What is evil? - How should I behave? And why? 5. **Aesthetics** - Philosophy of art and beauty - Science of beautiful in its various manifestations- including sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic, and ugly. - Basic Questions: - What is art? - How do arts communicate emotions? - How do arts relate to spirituality and religion? - Is there connection between morality and art? **LESSON 2: DOING PHILOSOPHY** - **Doing Philosophy** - To ask questions, to reflect, and to formulate and evaluate arguments. - "Philosophy begins in wonder." - Aristotle - **Philosophical Reflection** - Act of giving time to think about the meaning and purpose of life. -Gabriel Honore Marcel - Reflection could be a big help for us to know ourselves even more and to value the things that we have. - Philosophers reflect on ordinary thinking, trying to produce a better view of the world; on the other, they reflect on the philosophical results of this first reflection/primary reflection. - It is the careful examination of life situations. - **2 Types of Philosophical Reflection** 1. **Primary Reflection** - Refers to our immediate, pre- reflective experience of the world. - Ability to think logically and evaluate arguments. - It examines things by breaking it down into different or constituent parts. - Concerned with definitions, essences, and technical solutions to problems. 2. **Secondary Reflection** - Refers to our reflective, conceptual understanding of the world. - Enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of reality. - Reflective, conceptual understanding of the world. **LESSON 3: HOLISTIC AND PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW** - **Point of View** - Defined as a way or a method how one sees or perceives the reality or a phenomenon. - A specific attitude or manner through which a person thinks about something. - **Partial Point of View** - A perspective that looks at reality based on a single or partial component of a system. - Looks only at a limited number of aspects of the given problem or situation. - Examples: - A teacher scolded Student A after Student B accused him of stealing her pencil. However, the teacher only listened to the story of Student B, and not Student A before deciding to scold the student. - You can understand the nature of man by just studying Psychology. - **Holism** - Comes from the Greek word "holos" which literally means all, entire, totality. - School of thought that maintains the interdependence of factors to another agencies of casualties. - An approach to understanding the human mind and behavior that focuses on looking at things as a whole. - **Holistic Point of View** - Kind of system that aims to determine and explain the whole or totality of a given system by explaining the behaviors and activities of certain component parts. - Looks at all aspects of the given problem or situation. - Examples: - A teacher listened first to both stories of her two arguing students before making any conclusion about the issue. - Asking everyone from the class about what food they want for Christmas Party. **LESSON 4: TRUTH AND OPINION** - **Knowledge and Truth** - "Epistemology is a science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of acquiring and validating knowledge" (Rand 1990). - The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-fold: - 1\. To show how we can acquire knowledge. - 2\. To give us a method of demonstrating whether the knowledge we acquired is really knowledge (i.e., true). - **How do we acquire knowledge?** - **Reality** - the state of things as they actually exist, independent of our perceptions or beliefs. - To know is to know something. This "something" is what philosophers call reality, existence, being. - Existence is everything, there is. - **Perception** - How we interpret and make sense of reality through our senses. - Our first and only contact with reality is through our senses. - Knowledge begins with perceptual knowledge. - **Concept** - These are mental representations or categories that help us organize and classify our experiences and the information we obtain. - After we perceive things, we began to notice that some of the things we perceive are similar to other things. - **Proposition** - A proposition is a statement that expresses either an assertion or a denial that an existent belongs to a class or possess certain attribute. - When we use concepts in order to classify or describe an "existent" (a particular that exist be it an object, a person, an action or event, etc.) we use what philosophers call a proposition. - **Inference** - The process of drawing conclusions is based on the information and propositions we have. - It involves reasoning from known or assumed premises to reach new conclusions. - Inference allows us to expand our knowledge base by connecting different pieces of information. - **Truth** - knowledge validated and when we say validated, we mean they are based in the facts of reality. - **Opinion** - are value judgments that express a feeling or view. They may or may not be supported by facts. **Truth** **Opinion** --------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------ Based on the facts of reality Based on emotions Can be confirmed with other sources. Open to interpretation Independent of one's interpretation, preferences, and biases. Cannot be confirmed Inherently biased - **Theories of Truth** 1. **Correspondence Theory** - Proposes the idea that what we believe or say is true if it corresponds to the way things really are. - A belief is true if and only if it corresponds with something that exists in the world. - Argues that the idea that corresponds with reality is true while an idea which does not correspond to reality is false. 2. **Coherence Theory** - The Coherence Theory specifies that a statement is true based on its consistency with other statements that are considered as a whole we regard as true. This coherence is the fundamental factor, not coherence of a single statement with a single state of the world. - One might conclude that the statement is true only when the statements are tested as part of a larger system of complex ideas. 3. **Pragmatic Theory** - A belief or statement is true if it has a useful application in the world. - A belief that is useful is not necessarily true and in normal conversations, people do not typically use the word "true" to mean "useful." 4. **Consensus Theory** - Views knowledge as based on agreement, and something is true if almost everyone agrees that it is true. - Influential groups like the government, religious organizations. - Used to determine scientific claims. **LESSON 5: FALLACIES** - **Fallacies** - an argument that contains a mistake in reasoning. - an error in logical reasoning in an argument or a persuasive text. - derives from the Latin word "fallere" meaning, "to deceive, to trip, to lead into error or to trick." - The word also derives from the Greek "phelos", meaning "deceitful." - **Types of Fallacies** 1. **Argumentum ad Baculum** - Appeal to Force/Stick - committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to bring about the acceptance of a conclusion. - Examples: - Di ba mas masarap ang adobo kesa sa sinigang, diba? Sapakin kita kung hindi. - If you don\'t join our demonstration against the expansion of the park, we will evict you from your apartment. So, you should join our demonstration against the expansion of the park. - You should study nursing, otherwise, I will not send you to college. 2. **Argumentum ad Misericordiam** - Appeal to Pity - Pity or a related emotion such as sympathy or compassion is appealed to for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted. - Examples: - Sir, hindi ako nakapag-aral, mahirap lang po kami. - You should hire me because I'm a breadwinner. 3. **Argumentum ad Populum** - Appeal to the People - Attempting to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing the feeling and enthusiasms of the multitude - Examples: - Sabi nila mas masarap daw ang adobo kesa sinigang, oo sabi nila! - Marami naming gumagawa ng bagay na 'to, so gagawin ko na rin. 4. **Argumentum ad Verecundiam** - Appeal to Authority - Insisting that a claim is true simply because a valid authority or expert on the issue said it was true, without any other supporting evidence offered - Examples: - Ayon kay Chef Big Boy, mas masarap daw ang adobo kaysa sinigang. - Mga doctor na ang nagsabi nanepektibo ang gamut na ito sa lagnat kaya bibili na ako. 5. **Argumentatum Ad Hominem** - Argument against the Person - Attacking the character or circumstances of an individual who is advancing a statement or an argument instead of trying to disprove the soundness of the argument. - Example: - Teka pano mo nasabi na masarap ang sininigang eh, mahirap ka lang naman, hampas lupa, walang pambili ng kaldero! 6. **Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam** - Appeal to Ignorance - Saying something is true only because there is no evidence to prove it wrong (or saying something is false only because there is no evidence to prove it is true). - Argument ad Ignorantiam can be expressed in multiple ways, including the following: - One cannot prove that this is true, therefore it is false. - No one observed this occur, therefore it did not occur. - There is no proof to support Argument X, therefore Argument Y is true. - Examples: - God must exist, since no one can demonstrate that he does not exist. - Masha's doing a great job as a team leader since nobody complained about her. 7. **Argumentum ad Crumenam** - Appeal to Money - Supposing that a conclusion must be valid because the person making the argument is wealthy - Example: - Di ba mas masarap ang adobo kesa sa sinigang? Diba diba. Oh, eto bente! 8. **Appeal to Vanity** - Gaining support for an argument, not by the strength of the argument, but by using flattery on those whom you want to accept your argument.  - Examples: - Ang bait-bait mo talaga, pahingi naman ng Nova. - Ikaw nalang kaya ang magligpit ng pinggan? Kasi sobrang galing mo talaga sa gawain na ito! Kapag ikaw ang nagliligpit, napakalinis ng mga plato at baso. 9. **Red Herring** - An irrelevant topic is introduced in an argument to divert the attention of listeners from the original issue. - Examples: - Hindi naman talaga kita niloloko eh, pinsan ko lang yung nakita mo na kasama ko nung isang araw, sya nga pala samahan mo ko sa SM nood tayo ng sine, ang ganda raw nung spiderman, ano tara na? - Sorry Ma'am, hindi ko po nagawa yung assignment na pinagawa nyo po samen kase birthday po ni Mama. Ay oo nga pala, happy teacher's day po, ano pong gusto nyo, chocolate or flowers? 10. **Fallacy of Hasty Generalization** - Also known as the Fallacy of Insufficient Statistics, Fallacy of Insufficient Sample, Hasty Induction. - This fallacy is committed when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is not large enough. - Example: - Niloko nya ako! Lahat ng lalaki manloloko! - My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until the age of sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really can't be that bad for you. 11. **Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc** - After this, therefore because of this - The fallacy of arguing that one event was caused by another event merely because it occurred after that event. - If A happened then B happened, then A must have caused B to happen. - Examples: - I wore my purple sweater and my team won against all the odds. Therefore, I am going to wear that sweater to every game. - I drank a shot of tequila, then my cold went away. Therefore, a shot of tequila cured my cold. 12. **Slippery Slope Fallacy** - Also known as "Camel's Nose" - The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there\'s really not enough evidence for that assumption. - A person asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another without any argument for the inevitability of the event in question. - Examples: - Ma'am payagan mo na ako na bumili sa canteen ngayon. Pag hindi ako nakabili ng pagkain, magugutom ako. Kapag nagutom ako, hindi ako makakapag-aral nang maayos. Kapag hindi ako nakapag- aral nang maayos, babagsak ako. Kapag bumagsak ako, hindi na ako makakahanap ng trabaho, kapag hindi ako nakahanap ng trabaho, wala ako makakain. Kapag wala ako makain, mamamatay ako, kaya payagan mo na ako, Ma'am. - Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we don\'t respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives. It will be the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible consequence, we should make animal experimentation illegal right now. 13. **Fallacy of False Dichotomy** - False Dilemma - Only two alternative states are presented, when in fact more possibilities exist. - A spectrum of possible choices exists between two extremes. - Examples: - Jim often criticizes capitalism; therefore, he must be a communist. - Either you eat an apple every day, or you get sick and need to see the doctor. - "Kung sino man ang kumokontra sa confidential funds ay kumokontra sa kapayapaan. Kung sino man ang kumokontra sa kapayapaan ay kalaban ng bayan." (Guess who? Emeeee! HAHAHA) 14. **Fallacy of Composition** - Infers that something is true of a part, is true of a whole. - Example: - "You are a doctor; therefore you came from a family of doctors." 15. **Fallacy of Division** - Infers that something is true of the whole, must also be true on its parts. - Example: - "Your family is smart; therefore you are smart." **LESSON 6: HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT** - **Key Terms:** - Man- is the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race. - Human- refers to man as a species. - Human Being- used to distinguish man from other animals. - Person- is a much more complex term which generally refers to a human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection, responsibilities, and dignity above all. - Personhood -refers to the state of being a person. - Human Nature- refers to the characteristics that distinguish humans from all other creatures. - **Human Person** - A human person is someone with an exact origin of his/her classification. - From the biblical perspective, we came from Adam and Eve. - For science, we came from an ape under the class: Mammalia. - A human person is typically with a body which is tangible and has three components composed of SOUL, MIND and SPIRIT. Also, he or she is entitled and granted rights and privileges by the state which he or she legally belongs to. - The **Physical Self** (something can be seen in his/her physical appearance) which deals with the essential features of the human way of life or THE WHO OF A PERSON which includes his/her body type, strength, and appearance. - The **Cognitive Self** (something within and cannot be physically seen) is the essential component of a human persons that deals with THE WHAT OF A PERSON which includes human persons' belief, desire, dreams, and intentions. - **Embodied Spirit** - Embodied spirit is an animating core living within each of us. Inseparable union of body and soul. - It is known to be the driving force behind what we actually think, do and say. - The embodiment of the spirit particularly refers to the inseparable union of human body and soul. - Inseparable which also means the body and soul work together at all times. Hence, we can safely say that "embodied spirit" that the body is not separate from the soul, just as the soul is not separate from the body. - **Characteristics of Human Person as an Embodied Spirit** 1. **Self-awareness** - Refers to person having a clear perception of oneself, including his or her thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions. It is the ability of one's consciousness to look inward thus discovering the presence of a self. - Self-consciousness- conscious knowledge of one\'s own character, feelings, motives, and desires. - This awareness gives rise to the notion of the "self," which the philosophers describe as the person who is actively aware that he or she is perceiving and experiencing reality. 2. **Externality** - It is the capability of a person to reach out and interact with others and the world. - Philosophers consider man as a social being and that a person never exist in isolation. - The realization that we are not alone and that there are indeed other people around us enables us to reach out and establish meaningful relationships with others. 3. **Self-determination** - It refers to the capability of people to make choices and decisions based on their own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal-oriented and self-directed. - Free will is the capacity to choose a course of action from various alternatives. It enables us to do action whenever we want or that makes it for our self-determination. The existence of free will enables a person to act willfully to control his actions and recognize himself as the source of action. - Consequence is the result or effect of an action or condition. Philosophers believe that a person acts freely and with due regard for the consequences of his or her actions. For every decision that we make, there is always corresponding consequences. - Morality is the "goodness or badness" of an act. 4. **Dignity** - It is the innate right to be valued and respected. Philosophers consider all humans as having an inherent worth or value. - Each person is worth the same as another person in the sense that every person is priceless, unique, unrepeatable, and irreplaceable. - Human dignity is rooted in the nature of the human. It means that a person has dignity simply because he is human. Dignity is not defined by outside factors like intelligence, beauty, skills, etc. A person retains his dignity despite his or her actions or behavior. - Dignity also drives us to seek what is good. Doing good deeds upholds and promotes dignity of the human person. This recognition of dignity is also the basis for the recognition of human rights. - **Limitations of Human Person** - **Transcendence** - The ability to surpass limits and is also one important trait that distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence. - It is synonymous with our own self-improvement. If we always stay in our 'comfort zone' we make no progress. It is important to know how we can achieve more. Here, achieve is perhaps not the right word -- Self-transcendence is not just about achieving more, it is also about overcoming our negative limited thoughts and beliefs. - Transcendence means overcoming oneself or being in control even if the body reminds us of certain tendencies. Although these tendencies are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are exercised within the bounds of reason. - Each individual carries within himself the possibility of transcending his limits by exerting enough effort and perseverance. - Opening yourself to new experiences and ideas is another aspect of transcendence. - Our capacity for transcendence gives us the opportunity to work toward becoming better versions of ourselves. - "It is through our limitations that possibilities become real." - The body limits us. Unlike birds that can fly, we have no wings to make us fly. But with creative minds, we invented jets and planes to make us fly even farther than any bird. - **How to transcend our own limitations?** 1. **Set Targets** \- If you want to transcend yourself, you need to have something to aim for. Set realistic goals and targets. This may be getting rid of a bad habit; it may be getting up 30 minutes earlier; it may be improving your physical health. If you have something to aim for it remains a powerful motivation. As you achieve a small improvement, you can continue to raise the target. If it is not so easy to achieve your goals -- don't give up. Self-transcendence requires patience and perseverance. 2. **Don't Be Limited by Your Own Thoughts** \- The first thing we need to be aware of is how easily we can be affected by our own self-imposed limitations. Quite often, we may be unaware of how much we allow our thoughts to limit our perspective and capacities. These thoughts and ideas are often deeply embedded in our mind. However, whilst we cherish these thoughts, they will always act as an invisible barrier. Examine carefully, your own thoughts. If you find yourself often saying "I can't do that\..." try to at least suspend disbelief. 3. **Don't Listen to People's Negativity** **-** The world has more than its fair share of critics. They have a role to play; but progress does not come through listening to the doubts, suspicions, and disbelief of critics. It is important to be able to differentiate between constructive advice and criticism; when you can learn to ignore negativity, you are free to aim for the highest. 4. **Be Focused and Wholly Committed** \- Our self-transcendence does not come through halfhearted attempts. If we can harness the power of concentration, we will gain unimaginable focus. True concentration is the ability to focus on one thing to the the exclusion of all else. Usually, our attention is dispersed -- this makes our energy equally dispersed; when we learn to concentrate our self-improvement will come spontaneously. 5. **Remember Many Things were Possible** - If we always listened to the so called 'experts' we would probably still be travelling around in a horse and cart. Many times, we see people proudly proclaiming: 'that is impossible' When we look at things from the limitations of the mind, they probably do seem impossible. But, when we bring our inner soul qualities to the fore, is anything impossible? **LESSON 7: HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT** - **Environmental Philosophy** - It is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents. - Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes. - This means that as human person, we interact not only with our fellow human beings, but also with other living and non-living elements in our environment. - Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way that changes in our environment affect us. - **Environmental Aesthetics** - A philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it. - **Major Views of Philosophical Environment** 1. **Anthropocentrism** - When we say "anthropocentric," we mean "human-centeredness" based on its Greek etymology, Anthropos, which means human. Anthropocentric Environmental Ethics holds the belief in the supremacy of humanity over nature. This presupposes nature as an object of human consumption and the reason why we take care of nature is to ensure we have enough resources to continue living. Focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the means by which human are able to meet their needs and survive. 2. **Biocentrism** - Believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view advocates ethical treatment of animals. All living things deserve equal moral consideration. 3. **Ecocentrism** - This places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. It believes that humankind is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. This view promotes the idea that order and balance in nature brings about stability and beauty. The influence of humanity on the environment can be best understood if we consider the individual person as a dynamic source of change within his particular environment. - **Theories in Radical Ecological Philosophy** 1. **Deep Ecology** - Arne Naess - It assumes that all living things possess equal value and intrinsic worth regardless of their usefulness or utility to other beings. - This argues that when a man chooses to separate himself from the environment, it is when he leads himself to selfishness and abuse of nature. This egoism can be combatted through the adoption of relationism where man does not only see himself as related to the environment, but he also sees himself as part of the wider environment. In this sense, what humans do to the environment has also impact to humanity. This deep understanding of the inseparable connection of man and nature is the guide to how we should conduct our actions to the environment. 2. **Social Ecology** - Murray Bookchin - Believes that ecological problems can be traced to social problems. - The study of how individuals interact with and respond to the environment around them, and how these interactions affect society and the environment as a whole. Societies that are structured around hierarchies as well as economic classes use their authority to dominate natural resources and exploit the environment for profit and self-interest. - Our capacity to socialize, communicate and intelligence should be rendered for the welfare of the environment as well. 3. **Eco- feminism** - To address environmental problems humanity has to remove the superior vs. inferior in human relations. - Ecofeminism also believes that a society that tolerates the oppression of women is directly linked with its tendency to tolerate the abuse of the environment and the degradation of nature. - It also features the existing patriarchal and capitalist systems in our society as social and economic exploitative to the detrimental of women and nature. This theory benefits the social and political agenda of both female and nature. - This is a gender critique of the environment stating that patriarchy or male-dominated society is the source of environmental exploitation. And to counteract this patriarchal tradition, there is a need for the other gender -- the feminine who is also abused in human history to make a stand for the environment. Coming from a dualistic standpoint, the feminists defend their side which is regarded as the weaker ones in the duality system. The same defense for nature they pursue against patriarchy's exploitation of the environment. - **Sustainable Development** - Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. - 3 pillars: The Economy, Society, and Environment - **Principles of Sustainability** 1. **Environmental Integrity** - It means that any human activities or economic advances should not unduly disrupt the environment and human activities located in the area. 2. **Economic Efficiency** - This is to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste in using our natural resources. 3. **Equity** - It refers to conserving our natural resources so that the future generations will still be able to use it. - **Prudence and Frugality Towards Environment** - **Prudence-** the capacity to direct and discipline one's activities and behavior using reason. It is the behavior that is cautious and, as much as possible, keeps away from any risks. - **Frugality-** the quality of being thrifty. It is the careful supervision of one's resources**.**