Review I - Infancy PDF

1 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES ❖ DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY – the study of how people must study the prenatal environment to discuss a baby’s change physically, mentally, and socially throughout the menta...

1 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES ❖ DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY – the study of how people must study the prenatal environment to discuss a baby’s change physically, mentally, and socially throughout the mental health. lifespan. Not temporary changes (or are they), illness, growth ❖ PLACENTA: - a filter, allowing oxygen & nutrients to pass spurt, when does a person stop developing? If never then through, while keeping out some toxic or harmful substances. what is the artificial concept / prototype human? ❖ AMNIOCENTESIS: a test for genetic abnormalities – ETHICS! a medical test done between weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy, If humans are always changing, how do we get a baseline? GERMINAL (ZYGOTIC) PERIOD: the first 2 weeks of prenatal Every psychological study has the confounding variable of development. The zygote undergoes rapid cell division age. before becoming implanted on the uterine wall. CONTINUITY VIEW development is gradual EMBRYONIC STAGE: the 3rd week – 8 th week. It is a period and smooth of rapid growth & cell differentiation. The organs & major DISCONTINUITY VIEW / development is systems of the body form genes on the sex chromosomes STAGE THEORIES disconnected stages & hormonal influences trigger the initial development of the sex organs. (very fragile) HERITABILITY – how much do genetics influence behavior A. CEPHALOCAUDAL – C.N.S. top to bottom or a trait? B. PROXIMALDISTAL – inside out ENVIRONMENTABILITY – how much the environment or FETAL STAGE: the final & longest stage of prenatal culture influences a trait or behavior. development. The next 7 months the body systems grow & reach maturity in preparation for life outside the mother’s body Myelination ❖ TERATOGENS: - prenatal poisons -harmful agents of substances that can cause abnormal development or birth defects. The greatest vulnerability to teratogens occurs during the embryonic stage.  The mother’s own hormones o Stress These are abstract concepts that o Testosterone levels apply to a population – not an All babies are pretty much female at conception individual. You can’t say that any Too little vs too much? one person’s shyness is due to When should testosterone exposure happen? one gene or one part of the Radiation: high rate of cancers, physical deformities environment. industrial chemicals – mental retardation ❖ GENOTYPE – the underlying genetic make-up of a particular diseases: depend on the disease individual. o AIDS 1. DNA o Syphilis 2. Gene o rubella- 3. Chromosome Marijuana: anxious, irritable infant ❖ EPIGENETICS – just because you have a gene, doesn’t mean it Alcohol - F.A.S. is active ❖ FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME: is caused ❖ MATURATIONISM – children grow according to genetic by heavy maternal drinking during instructions and environment plays a secondary role pregnancy, especially in the first 12 weeks. It can result in a combination of physical changes and psychological deficits, such as degrees of mental retardation & hyperactivity. *Change in medicine. 40 years ago, it was OK to have alcohol while pregnant* ❖ INFANCY *Babies can do more than we used to think they can – they can fake cry!* ❖ PHENOTYPE: refers to the traits that are actually displayed 1. Though the cerebral cortex is not yet mature – some parts of the Dominant Genes brain are ‘wired’ randomly within genetic parameters Recessive Genes – blond hair – red hair 2. Parts associated with learning grow (are more plastic) more → Genetic disease than parts associated with sensation ❖ POLYGENIC – many traits are controlled by more than 1 gene 3. babies have too many neurons and synapses → Some genes often occur together – What about eye 4. Synaptic “pruning” of neurons and synapses color gene and behavioral gene? Scary a. This does not stop until age 25 Genes and behavior are BIDIRECTIONAL – 5. reflex actions. Sucking, rooting, facial mimicry, swimming, Environmental input and mental habits standing EPIGENETICS – study of how environment affects genes 6. body is out of proportion but arms and legs grow to catch up METHYLATION – process by which genes turn off due to to the ridiculously big drooling head protein interaction 7. 70% of the time newborns are asleep – but not during the night! ▪ Maternal stress hormones can change which genes - REM is when synapses are formed & pruned entrainment are turned on and turned off ❖ PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT - just as we must study the ❖ MATURATIONISM – children grow according to genetic environment of what makes a person act a certain way, we instructions and environment plays a secondary role 2 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES ❖ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ◆ VISION 1. They do not yet have a fovea (no cones). 2. Eye movements are slow and jerky 3. Gradually they look longer a. attention span? b. Muscle control? 4. Vision = 20:600 5. Infants “like” large patterns VISUAL CLIFF 1. Young baby can’t perceive cliff 2. After 9 months can see, depend on mommy for information ◆ HEARING - at 1 day infants can discriminate in tones that are 1 note apart - evolution 1. does not develop fully for years 2. does that explain why little kids don’t listen? 3. Newborns like female, high-pitched, rising sounds = baby talk ◆ ORAL SIGNALS 1. Like sweet tastes & smells 2. Can distinguish between their mother’s milk and others – evolution – breast milk has immune supporter ◆ MORAL DEVELOPMENT – there is increasing evidence humans ◆ MOTOR SKILLS are basically prosocial NATURE = all humans are genetically programmed to *Yale baby study – babies were shown a puppet show where know how to stand up one shape doesn’t help another shape. Babies universally NURTURE = babies learn to stand up because of prefer the one who is hurt vs. the one who does the hurting environmental cues  LAWRENCE KOHLBERG – moral development stages RECENT RESEARCH shows environment plays a factor but  HEINZ DILEMMA – it’s not what you say it’s why only when development reaches a certain stage – critical 1) preconventional stage a. obedience and punishment You can’t teach someone something until they are ready for it! b. exchange of favors - Would Watson, Skinner, Thordike, Pavlov agree? 2) conventional a. interpersonal relationships b. authority & social order 3) postconventional a. social contract b. universal principles ◆ LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT - Early views were based on reinforcement (skinner) - Chomsky disagreed L.A.D. (language acquisition device) - Babies understand more than they can say - Cooing – 2 months old - vowel sounds - Babbling - 6 months old add consonant - Holophrases – one-word phrases - Telegraphic speech – “juice spill” only use words that  PRESCHOOL AGE CHILD: o Physical - to toddle = awkward walking. gradually have meaning - Whole sentences feet moved closer together when walking *Bilingual brains are structurally different and have more synapses* o Mental grasping & drawing ability improves  MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: body grows rapidly, motor skills ◆ MEMORY OF CHILDREN (5 years old) continue to improve, girls match & exceed growth of 1) Freud said we repress troubling memories – but few boys by age 10, childhood memories are troubling, or are they? o boys -better gross motor skills 2) Some cognitive psychologists think since young kids don’t o girls - better fine motor skills have a sense of self; they can’t remember well – no schema 3) Earlier memories are implicit rather than explicit. 4) maybe we do not have language skills to help us encode stuff. – specifics get blurred 5) Biological psychologists say our brain(hippocampus) is not mature enough to chemically store the basis of memories 3 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES ◆ MENTAL DEVELOPMENT - Cognitive development is affected by STAGE 3 → Concrete Reasoning logical 6 or 7 to an enriched environment adolescence thinking is no longer only dictated  Environmental factors (SES) are huge in a child’s cognitive by what they can see lack of abstract reasoning development parents reading, different languages, 1. They can add, subtract, etc. siblings, educational games, books in the home, 2. But only on concrete things they know exists computers, internet access, family expectations 3. Not on abstract things such as justice or  There is a critical period when children must develop freedom certain things. If stimulation or instruction is not given STAGE 4 → Formal reasoning philosophical the adolescent during that time, the window closes and the person will is capable of abstract thought not develop correctly. - 7th grade girl Visual cortex – kittens – Hubel & Weisel ◆ SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT No plasticity o Konrad Lorenz showed the idea of IMPRINTING –  Sensitive period starts and end gradually – afterwards waterfowl will think the first thing they see as their mother learning is still possible EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Language Babies have a rich emotional life – Still Face Plasticity Prolonged emotional neglect causes brain damage LEV VYGOTSKY – stressed the mental interaction of children with more advanced children and adults Visual Cliff – SCAFFOLDING – “teachers” start the learning process 1) trust / emotional feedback –older o ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – what a child can do 2) Can’t perceive depth – younger with the help of a “teacher” - different than IQ Babies practice emotions by mimicking facial expressions COOPERATIVE LEARNING ✓ Many studies show that infants prefer to look at children’s RECIPROCAL LEARNING faces and toothy grins. They also seem to be able to pick up JEAN PIAGET on the mother’s moods. They look away if the mother is acting Different stages- it’s not that adult minds have more cranky. quantity – they have different qualities. ✓ From first months, children are attracted to other people and Piaget introduced the idea of SCHEMA a representation they are attractive to other people of how the world works ✓ Psychologists study games, morality, learning society’s rules, 1. ASSIMILATION – fit small, new info into existing and language acquisition schema  TEMPERAMENT – personality. Nature and nurture 2. ACCOMMODATION – replace old schema to 1) EASY BABIES – most common, get hungry and sleepy accommodate new info schema of doggie changes when kid sees a horse at regular times STAGE 1 → sensorimotor “Thoughts” are confined to sensing 2) DIFFICULT BABIES are irritable and irregular and doing there is no real cognition 3) SLOW-TO-WARM-UP babies 1. Thinking = doing - These temperaments are relatively permanent. But 2. This ends when infants can think outside of here environment can play a key. and now  SELF-CONCEPT: will develop through identification with - Object permanence parents, esp. if the parents have high status, power, and 3. In very young infants even partially visible things competence, similarity to the child, warmth, affection, will not trigger “thoughts” and regard for the child. a) When they do look for a missing thing, it is  EGOCENTRISM: children cannot see the world from random searching that is quick to end another’s perspective (and teens with their parents) b) 18-24 months is time when children learn STRANGE SITUATION STUDY - Mary Ainsworth things exist without them This is not based on temperament - is the age of onset a cue about future intelligence? This is based on attachment to a specific caregiver Piaget’s observations were primitive. He could 1. SECURE ATTACHMENT will calm down shortly when mother not gather accurate data so his theory might be returns from an absence. They show greater resilience, a little off. With advanced tests, psychologists self-control, and curiosity when they reach preschool. have found infants do “think” at an early age. 2. ANXIOUS-AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT infants avoid & ignore - simple addition their mother when she returns - videos and sound track 3. ANXIOUS-RESISTANT ATTACHMENT infants will seem angry - Piaget’s test of object permanence was at mothers and will resist being comforted difficult – requiring a child to pull a blanket 4. DISORGANIZED ATTACHMENT – child seems to physically off a hidden toy – infants might know it is not be able to respond their but be unable to do anything about it. HARRY HARLOW – wanted to prove love was a need RENEE BAILLARGEON – showed infants impossible CONTACT COMFORT: clinging to mother and objecting feats of gravity. Infants stared longest at these when she is out of sight – need a warm, soft object. suggesting they have some idea of basic physical components. o primary reinforcer - Mental models o biological need Maslow Why are some infants active? STAGE 2 → pre-operational period Why are some sleepy? Why are some fearful? Why do → Gaining the idea of conservation – a thing is some approach new things with enthusiasm? what it is despite what it looks like 4 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES ❖ ADOLESCENCE – multi-dimensional Young Intimacy vs Relationships 1. Physical Adulthood Isolation 2. Intellectual (19-40 years) 3. emotional Middle Generativity Work & 4. Social Adulthood vs Stagnation Parenthood 5. financial It has gotten longer with each generation = (40-60 years) protracted Late Ego Integrity Reflection on Adulthood vs Despair Life BEGIN – onset of puberty (65-death) ~ Begins earlier nowadays ◆ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Better healthcare PUBERTY: the ability to reproduce (girls = 12, boys = 14) 2. Hormones in food supply 1. MENARCHE: start of puberty for girls is the onset of their first END – it depends menstrual period ~ a big factor is when is self-sufficiency reached 2. SPERMARCHE: first ejaculation The word “Teenager” didn’t appear until 1941 3. PRIMARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS: traits related to G. STANLEY HALL: reproduction (enlargement of sex organs) A time of “storm and stress” 4. SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS: traits which have no o Research shows this isn’t actually true effect on physical reproduction, Klinefelter’s Syndrome- individual development parallels the evolution of the boys have an extra 18th chromosome and are often species – Recapitulation: each child would pass through obese and less masculine all earlier stages of human existence before reaching AGE OF ONSET AND SELF-ESTEEM adulthood → Early Maturing Girls: may be shyer, introverted, rate lower ▪ ERIKSON: Identity vs. Role confusion on social skills, try drugs earlier ▪ FREUD: Genital stage → Early Maturing Boys: more confidence, relaxed, socially ▪ PIAGET: Formal Operations (adolescence) can now responsible, highly regarded by others think about abstract things he has not perceptually Developmental Differences: girls develop faster than boys, experienced, hypothetical states, speak more fluently earlier, and suffer from fewer speech o IDEALISM: person can contemplate defects. Boys tend to behave more aggressively and have a hypothetical, possible worlds and may become more difficult time gaining autonomy from their parents (girls concerned with ideas/ideals over reality (may demand less independence) not meet their Infant and Child Lecture Notes 20 - Girls have more “emotional” internal regulatory issues, standards). Begin to question morality based on depression and self-esteem issue. rules & authority SEX is defined as the biological differences between male and o Teens are becoming good at seeing female. Sex roles are behaviors dependent on sex. Example: inconsistencies. “Why can we be drafted but we Breast feeding. can’t buy alcohol?!” GENDER is the behavior patterns deemed appropriate for men JAMES MARCIA – elaborated on Erikson’s idea of teenagers (masculine behaviors) and women (feminine behaviors) 1) Foreclosure commitment to a role is made without SEXUAL ORIENTATION represents who a person is attracted to, exploring alternatives whether physically or emotionally 2) Identity diffusion the teen will not choose a role and will GENDER IDENTITY is how a person thinks about himself or herself remain “floating” between – Adam Sandler regardless of what their physical sex is 3) Moratorium – “actively” subconsciously engaged in a GENDER EXPRESSION is how you demonstrate your gender struggle to find out who they are based on traditional gender roles. 4) Identity achievement - settling on a firm, not rigid idea of self ❖ GENDER DEVELOPMENT David Elkind’s idea of ego-centrism – based on self- GENDER ROLE – a set of GENDER consciousness based on personal fable expected behaviors VS SCHEMA/ACCULTURATION for males and for – how a child learns gender ERIKSON STAGES – PSYCHO-SOCIAL females. STAGE BASIC IMPORTANT OUTCOME CONFLICT EVENTS Infancy (birth Trust vs Feeding to 18 months) Mistrust Toddlerhood Autonomy vs Toilet training (2-3 years) Shame & Doubt Preschooler Initiative vs Exploration (3-5 years) Guilt Elementary Industry vs School School (6-11 Inferiority We must ask what makes a male or female years)  There was (and still is the idea) that boys and girls are the same Adolescence Identity vs Personal at birth and are simply raised differently. - John Money (12-18 years) Role Identity & - John/Joan Experiment Confusion Social Relationships  Study after study of infants, toddlers, children teens and adults show wide differences that cannot be due to nurture.  Simon Lavay found structural difference between straight men and gay men in the hypothalamus. 5 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES  HOWEVER - the commonalities between men and women FAR parents fostered during childhood. Adolescents tend to form outweigh the differences! Yet we only focus on differences! friendships with peers who are similar in age, social class, race, Young female chimps seem to cradle sticks as if they were and beliefs about drinking, dating, church attendance, and baby dolls educational goals. Age 3 children know that they are boys and girls – the rest Parents: usually positive, continuation of positive relationships of their life is spent figuring out what that means. or problems that first surfaced during childhood, less than 10% 1970’s idea that males and females were the same of adolescents report that parent-child relationships Research is still mixed, but ask any parent or teacher of dramatically deteriorated during adolescence, common young children and they will say that boys and girls think, conflicts include choice of friends, final authority on a act, and are different. It is not based on raising them a particular issue. certain way. ❖ Teens & Sexual Behavior - Early sexual activity carries with it a What about stereotypes? Aren’t kids supposed to be bad and bunch of problems parents overbearing? 1) hold less conventional attitudes about morals and what is ❖ EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT - Learning to control one’s emotion right. is key to development. - By definition conventional views are dictated by the  5 KEYS TO EMOTIONAL HEALTH? power group 1. soothe yourself 2) more likely to smoke, drink, and use other drugs 2. DELAY GRATIFICATION 3) parents are less educated & have less control a. impulse control 4) less of a relationship with parents. 3. Read feelings of others 5) connection between early sexual activity and child hood 4. Manage anger abuse 5. Respond to group 6) declining school achievement ❖ COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT – reality vs. stereotype 7) pregnancy ✓ Teens are just as good as adults at assessing risk 8) ¼ of a new AIDS cases start in adolescence ✓ Teens are not simply more risky When looking at brain scans between males and females there are ✓ Teens simply evaluate the gain more than the risk clear differences. “Although a study of brain scans has an air of ✓ Teens minimize the chance of bad consequences biological purity, it doesn’t escape from the reality that the people ✓ Adults focus on the risk not the gain having their brains scanned are the product of social and cultural forces as well as biological ones.’ ► PARENTING STYLES – Diana Baumrind When a baby cries, do you let her cry it out? Conflicts with parents – within reason they are normal and good. → Kids have to test their new abilities: - Reasoning, moral development, physical, social skills Deryl Bem - Gender role theory - Higher educated parents actually encourage  ADOLESCENCE is a time of exaggerated gender behavior independent thought 1. Boys seemed to be obsessed with physical power o Bench press, who could beat who in a fight, A) PERMISSIVE: parents tend to let their children do whatever they who’s car is faster, etc want. These parents don’t make many rules, and they fail to 2. Girls seem to be obsessed with knowing and consistently enforce the few rules they do make. regulating other’s feelings B) AUTHORITARIAN: (dictatorial) rigid and inflexible. They set o birthday balloons, aww, that’s so mean, down the rules and demand compliance, often administering hugging every 5 seconds harsh punishments for disobedience. Lower S.E.S. The children  ADULTHOOD is a general decline in gender specific have very little, if any input into how their lives is governed. behavior – by old age, women seem to stop caring about - “tiger moms” Chinese mothers who are very strict and agreeing with others and men seem to stop caring about demand very high achievement to the exclusion of social being tough. activities. There are many downsides to this ◆ SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT – social skills become increasingly C) AUTHORITATIVE important and increased interest in the opposite sex. D) UNINVOLVED  Adolescents become less dependent upon parents and ❖ EMERGING ADULTHOOD become more involved with their peers young adults in developed countries ▪ PERSONAL FABLE - adolescents believe themselves to do not have children, be unique and invincible do not live in their own home ▪ IMAGINARY AUDIENCE - a thought common in do not have sufficient income to become fully adolescence in which they believe that everyone is independent in their early to late 20s looking at them because they are the center of the Boomerang generation – protracted – ability to support world (spotlight effect) oneself Who has more influence over adolescents, parents or peers? Friends: peer relationships become increasingly important and ◆ ADULT DEVELOPMENT the adolescent’s social network, social context, and ❖ Intimate relationships: getting married & starting a family community influence his values, norms, and expectations. become more important. Peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that 6 REVIEW I – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY INFANT AND CHILD LECTURE NOTES - Who do we marry? ▬ Dementia broad category – earlier experiences may − We marry people that are similar to us – physical increase risk attractiveness, social & educational status, ethnic − After 80 chances of getting, it actually decreases! background, attitudes, values, & beliefs. − More often confused at sundown – sundowners’ ❖ Parenthood: marital satisfaction declines, alters a person’s syndrome Alzhiemers identity, changes lifestyles, easy adjustment if marital − Musical memories last longer than other types relationship is warm & positive, household & child-care − Stroke responsibilities are shared. Marital satisfaction tends to ❖ Stereotypes: poor health, inactivity, social isolation, and increase when children leave home. mental & physical incompetence ❖ Reality: most older people are healthy, active, & self-sufficient ◆ DEVELOPMENT VS DECLINE: over 65 – 5% live in nursing homes ❖ Positive symptoms of aging: over 85 – 25% live in nursing homes 1. verbal skills, 2. emotional skills intelligence, K. Warner-Shaie: general intellectual abilities gradually 3. crystalized intelligence increase until one’s early 40’s, then become relatively stable ❖ Negative symptoms of aging: until 60. After age 60, a small but steadily decline of general 1. brain size reduction, intellectual abilities. The more education & stimulating lifestyle, 2. deterioration of visual acuity and hearing, the less in decline. Keep your mind active! Changes occur in: 3. a lengthened reaction time, ◆ DYING & DEATH 4. reduced motor control, ❖ Anxiety about Death: tends to peak in middle adulthood and Genetics & environmental both play a role then decreases. People respond to death in a wide variety of ▪ childhood skills are not practiced, body begins to show emotions wear. ❖ Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: 5 stages grief ▪ “Use it or lose it!” 1. Denial ▪ Do the adults you know exercise? 2. Anger Aging can include: 3. Bargain (try to make a deal with doctors, God, make 1. hair loss promises to behave in a certain way) 2. graying hair, 4. Depression 3. wrinkles 5. Acceptance 4. menopause 5. inefficiency of body organs, 6. physical strength & endurance declines 7. sensory capabilities decline ◆ SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULTS - As adults get older it seems they often withdraw from social situations to focus on a few rewarding relationships and friendships. they already know what they like in a friend vs. younger people who must try out friends.  Friendships Females: tend to confide in one another about their feelings, problems, & interpersonal relationships Males: minimize discussion about relationships, personal feelings or problems. Tend to do things together they find mutually interesting. Work: more people are changing careers/jobs and dual-career families are on the increase. ❖ Activity Theory of Aging: life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when you maintain your previous level of activity. It is important to have at least one confidant (higher morale, better mental health, greater psychological well-being). ◆ LATE ADULTHOOD & AGING ❖ Average life expectancy: Male = 72 Female = 79 ▬ Age related damage to inner ear can result in dizziness and falls ▬ Crystalized vs. fluid intelligence ▬ 80-year-old fall asleep in 18 minutes ▬ 20-year-old fall asleep in 8 minutes ▬ Video games have been shown to improve cognitive abilities in older people ▬ Very slight decline in working memory and accuracy of retrieval from LTM small but reliable deterioration of hippocampus (5%)