Infant and Child Lecture Notes PDF

Infant and Child Lecture Notes 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental psychology: the study of how people change physically, mentally, and socially throughout the lifespan. Not temporary changes (or are they), illness, growth spurt, When does a person stop developi...

Infant and Child Lecture Notes 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental psychology: the study of how people change physically, mentally, and socially throughout the lifespan. Not temporary changes (or are they), illness, growth spurt, When does a person stop developing? If never then what is the artificial concept / prototype human? If humans are always changing, how do we get a baseline? Every psychological study has the confounding variable of age. Continuity view development is gradual and smooth Discontinuity view / Stage development is Theories disconnected stages Heritability – how much Environmentability – how much do genetics influence the environment or culture behavior or a trait? influences a trait or behavior  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 2 VS. These are abstract concepts that apply to a population – not an individual. You can’t say that any one person’s shyness is due to one gene or one part of the environment. Genotype: the underlying genetic make-up of a particular individual 1. DNA 2. Gene 3. Chromosome Epigenetics – just cause you have a gene, doesn’t mean it is active Maturationism – children grow according to genetic instructions and environment plays a secondary role XXY Xtra 21st chromosome Missing X chromosome Xtra 23rd chromosome Down Syndrome Turner’s Syndrome Klinefelter’ syndrome  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 3 Phenotype: refers to the traits that are actually displayed Dominant Genes Recessive Genes – blond hair – red hair Genetic disease Polygenic – many traits are controlled by more than 1 gene Some genes often occur together – What about eye color gene and behavioral gene? Scary o Genes and behavior are bidirectional – o Environmental input and mental habits o Epigenetics – study of how environment affects genes o Methylation – process by which genes turn off due to protein interaction ▪ Maternal stress hormones can change which genes are turned on and turned off PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT – just as we must study the environment of what makes a person act a certain way, we must  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 4 study the prenatal environment to discuss a baby’s mental health. Placenta: - a filter, allowing oxygen & nutrients to pass through, while keeping out some toxic or harmful substances. Amniocentesis: a test for genetic abnormalities – ETHICS! a medical test done between weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy, Germinal (zygotic) Period: the first 2 weeks of prenatal development. The zygote undergoes rapid cell division before becoming implanted on the 2 most likely uterine wall. stages for a Embryonic Stage: the 3rd week – miscarriage Very 8th week. It is a period of rapid fragile growth & cell differentiation. The organs & major systems of the body form genes on the sex chromosomes & hormonal influences trigger the initial development of the sex organs. A. Cephalocaudal – C.N.S. top to bottom B. Proximaldistal – inside out Fetal Stage: the final & longest stage of prenatal development. The next 7 months the body systems grow & reach maturity in preparation for life outside the mother’s body Myelination  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 5 Teratogens: - prenatal poisons -harmful agents of substances that can cause abnormal development or birth defects. The greatest vulnerability to teratogens occurs during the embryonic stage. o The mother’s own hormones o Stress o Testosterone levels ▪ All babies are pretty much female at conception ▪ Too little vs too much? ▪ When should testosterone exposure happen? Radiation: high rate of cancers, physical deformities industrial chemicals – mental retardation diseases: depend on the disease AIDS - syphilis – rubella- Marijuana: anxious, irritable infant Alcohol - F.A.S. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: is caused by heavy maternal drinking during pregnancy, especially in the first 12 weeks. It can result in a combination of physical changes and psychological deficits, such as degrees of mental retardation & hyperactivity Change in medicine. 40 years ago, it was OK to have alcohol while pregnant  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 6 INFANCY Babies can do more than we used to think they can – they can fake cry! 1. Though the cerebral cortex is not yet mature – some parts of the brain are ‘wired’ randomly within genetic parameters 2. Parts associated with learning grow(are more plastic) more than parts associated with sensation 3. babies have too many neurons and synapses 4. Synaptic “pruning” of neurons and synapses a. This does not stop until age 25 5. reflex actions. Sucking, rooting, facial mimicry, swimming, standing 6. body is out of proportion but arms and legs grow to catch up to the ridiculously big drooling head 7. 70% of the time newborns are asleep – but not during the night! REM is when synapses are formed & pruned entrainment - Maturationism – children grow according to genetic instructions and environment plays a secondary role  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 7 Physical Development Vision 1. They do not yet have a fovea (no cones). 2. Eye movements are slow and jerky 3. Gradually they look longer a. attention span? b. Muscle control? 4. Vision = 20:600 5. Infants “like” large patterns Visual Cliff 1. Young baby can’t perceive cliff 2. After 9 months can see, depend on mommy for information Hearing - at 1 day infants can discriminate in tones that are 1 note apart - evolution 1. does not develop fully for years 2. does that explain why little kids don’t listen? 3. Newborns like female, high-pitched, rising sounds = baby talk  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 8 Oral signals 1. Like sweet tastes & smells 2. Can distinguish between their mother’s milk and others – evolution – breast milk has immune supporters Motor skills Nature = all humans are genetically programmed to know how to stand up Nurture = babies learn to stand up because of environmental cues Recent research shows environment plays a factor but only when development reaches a certain stage – critical stage You can’t teach someone something until they are ready for it! - Would Watson, Skinner, Thordike, Pavlov agree? Month Physical Ability Acquired 1 can hold chin up 3 can reach for an object 4 can sit up, with support 7 can sit alone 8 can stand with help 11 can walk when led 14 can stand alone 15 can walk alone Preschool Age child: o Physical- to toddle = awkward walking. gradually feet moved closer together when walking o Mental grasping & drawing ability improves  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 9 Middle Childhood: body grows rapidly, motor skills continue to improve, girls match & exceed growth of boys by age 10, o boys -better gross motor skills  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 10 o girls - better fine motor skills  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 11 Moral Development – there is increasing evidence humans are basically prosocial Yale baby study – babies were shown a puppet show where one shape doesn’t help another shape. Babies universally prefer the one who is hurt vs. the one who does the hurting. Lawrence Kohlberg – moral development stages Heinz Dilemma – it’s not what you say it’s why 1. preconventional a. obedience and punishment b. exchange of favors 2. conventional a. interpersonal relationships a. authority & social order 3. postconventional a. social contract b. universal principles Language development - Early views were based on reinforcement (skinner) - Chomsky disagreed L.A.D.(language acquisition device) - Babies understand more than they can say - Cooing – 2 months old - vowel sounds - Babbling - 6 months old add consonant - Holophrases – one word phrases - - Telegraphic speech – “juice spill” only use words that have meaning - Whole sentences Bilingual brains are structurally different and have more synapses  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 12 Memory of children 5 years old 1. Freud said we repress troubling memories – but few childhood memories are troubling or are they? 2. Some cognitive psychologists think since young kids don’t have a sense of self, they can’t remember well – no schema 3. Earlier memories are implicit rather than explicit. 4. maybe we do not have language skills to help us encode stuff. – specifics get blurred 5. Biological psychologists say our brain(hippocampus) is not mature enough to chemically store the basis of memories  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 13 Mental Development - Cognitive development is affected by an enriched environment – Environmental factors (SES) are huge in a child’s cognitive development parents reading, different languages, siblings, educational games, books in the home, computers, internet access, family expectations,- POVERTY CAUSES BRAIN DAMAGE There is a critical period when children must develop certain things. If stimulation or instruction is not given during that time, the window closes and the person will not develop correctly. Visual cortex – kittens – Hubel & Weisel No plasticity Sensitive period start and end gradually – afterwards learning is still possible Language plasticity Lev Vygotsky – stressed the mental interaction of children with more advanced children and adults Scaffolding – “teachers” start the learning process Zone of proximal development – what a child can do with the help of a “teacher” - different than IQ Cooperative learning Reciprocal learning  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 14 Jean Piaget Different stages- it’s not that adult minds have more quantity – they have different qualities. Piaget introduced the idea of SCHEMA a representation of how the world works 1. assimilation – fit small, new info into existing schema 2. accommodation – replace old schema to accommodate new info schema of doggie changes when kid sees a horse STAGE 1 = sensorimotor “Thoughts” are confined to sensing and doing there is no real cognition 1. Thinking = doing 2. This ends when infants can think outside of here and now Object permanence 3. In very young infants even partially visible things will not trigger “thoughts” a. When they do look for a missing thing, it is random searching that is quick to end b. 18-24 months is time when children learn things exist without them -is the age of onset a cue about future intelligence? Piaget’s observations were primitive. He could not gather accurate data so his theory might be a little off. With advanced tests, psychologists have found infants do “think” at an early age. - simple addition - videos and sound tracks  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 15 - Piaget’s test of object permanence was difficult – requiring a child to pull a blanket off a hidden toy – infants might know it is their but be unable to do anything about it. Renee Baillargeon – showed infants impossible feats of gravity. Infants stared longest at these suggesting they have some idea of basic physical components. Mental models STAGE 2 pre-operational period Gaining the idea of conservation – a thing is what it is despite what it looks like two water glasses – kids watched the same amount of fluid being poured into each BUT they always said the taller glass held more. STAGE 3 Concrete Reasoning logical 6 or 7 to adolescence thinking is no longer only dictated by what they can see lack of abstract reasoning 1. They can add, subtract, etc. 2. But only on concrete things they know exists 3. Not on abstract things such as justice or freedom STAGE 4 Formal reasoning philosophical the adolescent is capable of abstract thought 7th grade girl SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 16 Konrad Lorenz showed the idea of imprinting – waterfowl will think the first thing they see as their mother Early bond after birth? Maybe but adoptive parents form an equally strong bond Emotional development Babies have a rich emotional life – Still Face Prolonged emotional neglect causes brain damage Visual Cliff – o 1.trust / emotional feedback –older o 2. Can’t perceive depth – younger Babies practice emotions by mimicking facial expressions ✓ Many studies show that infants prefer to look at children’s faces and toothy grins. They also seem to be able to pick up on the mother’s moods. They look away if the mother is acting cranky. ✓ From first months, children are attracted to other people and they are attractive to other people ✓ Psychologists study games, morality, learning society’s rules, and language acquisition  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 17 Temperament – personality. Nature and nurture Ask your 1. easy babies – most common, get hungry and sleepy at parent regular times about you and your 2. difficult babies are irritable and irregular siblings! 3. slow-to-warm-up babies These temperaments are relatively permanent. But, environment can play a key. Self-concept: will develop through identification with parents, esp. if the parents have high status, power, and competence, similarity to the child, warmth, affection, and regard for the child. Egocentrism: children cannot see the world from another’s perspective (and teens with their parents) Strange Situation Study - Mary Ainsworth This is not based on temperament This is based on attachment to a specific caregiver 1. Secure attachment will calm down shortly when What happens when mother returns from an absence. They show greater mommy returns? resilience, self-control, and curiosity when they reach preschool. 2. Anxious-avoidant attachment infants avoid Is this predictive? & ignore their mother when she returns 3. anxious-resistant attachment infants will seem angry at mothers and will resist being comforted 4. Disorganized attachment – child seems to physically not be able to respond  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 18 Harry Harlow – wanted to prove love was a need Contact Comfort: clinging to mother and objecting when she is out of sight – need a warm, soft object. primary reinforcer biological need Maslow Why are some infants active? Why are some sleepy? Why are some fearful? Why do some approach new things with enthusiasm?  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 19 ADOLESCENCE – multi-dimensional 1. Physical 2. Intellectual 3. emotional 4. Social 5. financial It has gotten longer with each generation = protracted Begin – onset of puberty Begins earlier nowadays 1. Better healthcare 2. Hormones in food supply? End – it depends a big factor is when is self-sufficiency reached The word “Teenager” didn’t appear until 1941 G. Stanley Hall: A time of “storm and stress” o Research shows this isn’t actually true individual development parallels the evolution of the species – Recapitulation: each child would pass through all earlier stages of human existence before reaching adulthood Erikson Identity vs. Role confusion Freud: Genital stage Piaget: Formal Operations (adolescence) can now think about abstract things he has not perceptually experienced, hypothetical states, o Idealism: person can contemplate hypothetical, possible worlds and may become concerned with ideas/ideals over reality (may not meet their  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 20 standards). Begin to question morality based on rules & authority o Teens are becoming good at seeing inconsistencies. “why can we be drafted but we can’t buy alcohol?!” James Marcia – elaborated on Erikson’s idea of teenagers 1. Foreclosure commitment to a role is made without exploring alternatives 2. Identity diffusion the teen will not choose a role and will remain “floating” between – Adam Sandler 3. Moratorium – “actively” subconsciously engaged in a struggle to find out who they are 4. Identity achievement - settling on a firm, not rigid idea of self David Elkind’s idea of ego-centrism – based on self- consciousness based on personal fable  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 21 Erikson Stages - Psycho-Social Stage Basic Conflict Important Outcome Events Infancy (birth to Trust vs. Feeding 18 months) Mistrust Toddlerhood (2 Autonomy vs. Toilet Training to 3 years) Shame and Doubt Preschooler (3 Initiative vs. Exploration to 5 years) Guilt Elementary Industry vs. School School (6 to 11 Inferiority years) Adolescence (12 Identity vs. Personal to 18 years) Role Confusion identity & Social Relationships Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Adulthood (19 Isolation to 40 years) Middle Generativity Work and Adulthood (40 vs. Stagnation Parenthood to 65 years) Late Ego Integrity Reflection on Adulthood(65 to vs. Despair Life death)  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 22 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Puberty: the ability to reproduce (girls = 12, boys = 14) 1. Menarche: start of puberty for girls is the onset of their first menstrual period 2. Spermarche: first ejaculation 3. Primary sexual characteristics: traits related to reproduction (enlargement of sex organs) 4. Secondary Sex Characteristics: traits which have no effect on physical reproduction, Klinefelter’s Syndrome- boys have an extra 18th chromosome and are often obese and less masculine Age of onset and self-esteem Early Maturing Girls: may be more shy, introverted, rate lower on social skills, try drugs earlier Early Maturing Boys: more confidence, relaxed, socially responsible, highly regarded by others Developmental Differences: girls develop faster than boys, speak more fluently earlier, and suffer from fewer speech defects. Boys tend to behave more aggressively and have a more difficult time gaining autonomy from their parents (girls demand less independence) Girls have more “emotional” internal regulatory issues, depression and self-esteem issue.  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 23 Sex is defined as the biological differences between male and female. Sex roles are behaviors dependent on sex. Example: Breast feeding. Gender is the behavior patterns deemed appropriate for men (masculine behaviors) and women (feminine behaviors) Sexual orientation represents who a person is attracted to, whether physically or emotionally Gender Identity is how a person thinks about himself or herself regardless of what their physical sex is Gender expression is how you demonstrate your gender based on traditional gender roles. Gender development Gender role Gender schema / acculturation A set of expected vs. – how a child learns gender behaviors for males and for females Male Female Brain structure Gestational Hormonal Exposure Later life hormonal interaction How they were raised How they self-identify Sexual orientation External genitals Internal genitals  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 24 We must ask what makes a male or female There was (and still is the idea) that boys and girls are the same at birth and are simply raised differently. John Money ▪ John/Joan Experiment Study after study of infants, toddlers, children teens and adults show wide differences that cannot be due to nurture Simon Lavay found structural difference between straight men and gay men in the hypothalamus. HOWEVER- the commonalities between men and women FAR outweigh the differences! Yet we only focus on differences! Young female chimps seem to cradle sticks as if they were baby dolls ▪ Age 3 children know that they are boys and girls – the rest of their life is spent figuring out what that means. ▪ 1970’s idea that males and females were the same ▪ Research is still mixed, but ask any parent or teacher of young children and they will say that boys and girls think, act, and are different. It is not based on raising them a certain way  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 25 Teens & Sexual Behavior - Early sexual activity carries with it a bunch of problems 1. hold less conventional attitudes about morals and what is right. By definition conventional views are dictated by the power group 2. more likely to smoke, drink, and use other drugs 3. parents are less educated & have less control 4. less of a relationship with parents. 5. connection between early sexual activity and child hood abuse 6. declining school achievement 7. pregnancy 8. ¼ of a new AIDS cases start in adolescence When looking at brain scans between males and females there are clear differences. “Although a study of brain scans has an air of biological purity, it doesn’t escape from the reality that the people having their brains scanned are the product of social and cultural forces as well as biological ones.’  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 26 THERE IS NO RESEARCH THAT SAYS EARLY SEXUAL ACTIVITY IS HEALTHY, OK, OR BENEFICIAL! For boys or girls For any index of measurement Financial emotional Academic social Physical spiritual Deryl Bem Gender role theory Adolescence is a time of exaggerated gender behavior 1. Boys seemed to be obsessed with physical power Bench press, who could beat who in a fight, who’s car is faster, etc 2. Girls seem to be obsessed with knowing and regulating other’s feelings birthday balloons, aww, that’s so mean, hugging every 5 seconds Adulthood is a general decline in gender specific behavior – by old age, women seems to stop caring about agreeing with others and men seem to stop caring about being tough SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT social skills become increasingly important and increased interest in the opposite sex.  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 27 Adolescents become less dependent upon parents and become more involved with their peers personal fable adolescents believe themselves to be unique and invincible imaginary audience a thought common in adolescence in which they believe that everyone is looking at them because they are the center of the world (spotlight effect) Who has more influence over adolescents, parents or peers? Friends: peer relationships become increasingly important and the adolescent’s social network, social context, and community influence his values, norms, and expectations. Peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that parents fostered during childhood. Adolescents tend to form friendships with peers who are similar in age, social class, race, and beliefs about drinking, dating, church attendance, and educational goals. Parents: usually positive, continuation of positive relationships or problems that first surfaced during childhood, less than 10% of adolescents report that parent-child relationships dramatically deteriorated during adolescence, common conflicts include choice of friends, final authority on a particular issue. What about stereotypes? Aren’t kids supposed to be bad and parents overbearing?  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 28 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Learning to control one’s emotion is key to development. 5 keys to emotional health? 1. soothe yourself 2. DELAY GRATIFICATION – a. impulse control 3. Read feelings of others 4. Manage anger 5. Respond to group. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT reality vs. stereotype Teens are just as good as adults at assessing risk Teens are not simply more risky Teens simply evaluate the gain more than the risk Teens minimize the chance of bad consequences Adults focus on the risk not the gain PARENTING STYLES – Diana Baumrind When a baby cries, do you let her cry it out?  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 29 Conflicts with parents – within reason they are normal and good. -Kids have to test their new abilities Reasoning, moral development, physical, social skills -Higher educated parents actually encourage independent thought PERMISSIVE: parents tend to let their children do whatever they want. These parents don’t make many rules, and they fail to consistently enforce the few rules they do make. AUTHORITARIAN: (dictatorial) rigid and inflexible. They set down the rules and demand compliance, often administering harsh punishments for disobedience. Lower S.E.S. The children have very little, if any input into how their lives are governed. “tiger moms” Chinese mothers who are very strict and demand very high achievement to the exclusion of social activities. There are many downsides to this  AUTHORITATIVE: UNINVOLVED EMERGING ADULTHOOD young adults in developed countries do not have children, do not live in their own home  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 30 do not have sufficient income to become fully independent in their early to late 20s Boomerang generation – protracted – ability to support oneself ADULT DEVELOPMENT Intimate relationships: getting married & starting a family become more important. Who do we marry? We marry people that are similar to us – physical attractiveness, social & educational status, ethnic background, attitudes, values, & beliefs. Parenthood: marital satisfaction declines, alters a person’s identity, changes lifestyles, easy adjustment if marital relationship is warm & positive, household & child-care responsibilities are shared. Marital satisfaction tends to increase when children leave home. Development vs decline:  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 31 Positive symptoms of aging: 1. verbal skills, 3. emotional skills intelligence 4. crystalized intelligence Negative symptoms of aging: 1. brain size reduction, 2. deterioration of visual acuity and hearing, 3. a lengthened reaction time, 4. reduced motor control, Genetics & environmental both play a role childhood skills are not practiced, body begins to show wear. “use it or lose it!” Do the adults you know exercise? Aging can include: 1. hair loss 2. Graying hair, 3.wrinkles 4. Menopause 5. inefficiency of body organs, 6. Physical strength & endurance declines 7. Sensory capabilities decline SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULTS As adults get older it seems they often withdraw from social situations to focus on a few rewarding relationships and friendships. they already know what they like in a friend vs. younger people who must try out friends. Friendships Females: tend to confide in one another about their feelings, problems, & interpersonal relationships Males: minimize discussion about relationships, personal feelings or problems. Tend to do things together they find mutually interesting.  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 32 Work: more people are changing careers/jobs and dual-career families are on the increase. Activity Theory of Aging: life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when you maintain your previous level of activity. It is important to have at least one confidant (higher morale, better mental health, greater psychological well-being) LATE ADULTHOOD & AGING Average life expectancy: Male = 72 Female = 79 -Age related damage to inner ear can result in dizziness and falls - Crystalized vs. fluid intelligence -80 year old fall asleep in 18 minutes -20 year old fall asleep in 8 minute -Video games have been shown to improve cognitive abilities in older people -Very slight decline in working memory and accuracy of retrieval from LTM small but reliable deterioration of hippocampus (5%) Dementia broad category – earlier experiences may increase risk After 80 chance of getting it actually decreases! More often confused at sundown – sundowners syndrome Alzhiemers Musical memories last longer than other types Stroke Stereotypes: poor health, inactivity, social isolation, and mental & physical incompetence Reality: most older people are healthy, active, & self-sufficient over 65 – 5% live in nursing homes  Infant and Child Lecture Notes 33 over 85 – 25% live in nursing homes K. Warner-Shaie: general intellectual abilities gradually increase until one’s early 40’s, then become relatively stable until 60. After age 60, a small but steadily decline of general intellectual abilities. The more education & stimulating lifestyle, the less in decline. Keep your mind active! Changes occur in: DYING & DEATH Anxiety about Death: tends to peak in middle adulthood and then decreases. People respond to death in a wide variety of emotions Doesn’t have Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: 5 stages grief to be in order! 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargain (try to make a deal with doctors, God, make promises to behave in a certain way) 4. Depression 5. Acceptance