Educational Management 2 Study Guide PDF

EDUCATION IS THE GREATEST EQUALISER Educational Management 2 Study Guide compiled by: Michele James and Caroline Chaplin 2015 Revised by: Dr Samuel Haipinge Hamukoshi Edited by: Dr Denise Zambezi 2023 Published by the Institute for Open Learning Windhoek, Namibia © Institute for Open Learning 2015 1 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission from publishers. Date of next revision of syllabus: 2026 Institute for Open Learning Windhoek Telephone: +264 61 270 9100 E-mail: [email protected] 2 Contents I. Word of welcome................................................................................................. i II. Time required....................................................................................................... i III. How to use this study guide...............................................................................ii IV. Exit learning outcomes..................................................................................... iii V. Study supports available..................................................................................... iii VI. Module assessment policy............................................................................... iii VII. Verbs’ thinking processes.................................................................................iv VIII. Prescribed textbooks....................................................................................... vii IX. References in IOL Centres.............................................................................. vii IX. Plagiarism........................................................................................................... vii X. Icons used in the study guide............................................................................ viii UNIT 1........................................................................................................................ 1 Basic concepts and aspects of management............................................................. 1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 3 Learning outcomes..................................................................................................... 3 Learning activities...................................................................................................... 4 Readings.................................................................................................................... 5 1.1 The concepts ‘management’, ‘manager’ and ‘administration’............................... 5 1.1.1 Management.................................................................................................. 5 1.1.2 Manager..................................................................................................... 8 1.1.3 Administration............................................................................................ 9 1.2 The importance of effective classroom and school management and the statement: “Management is an art, a science and a profession.’............................. 13 1.2.1 Classroom management.......................................................................... 13 1.2.2 Creating favourable teaching and learning environment.............................. 14 1.2. 3 Importance of effective classroom management........................................ 15 1.2.4 School management................................................................................ 17 1.2.5 Management is an art, a science and a profession.................................. 18 1.2.6 Management as both a science and an art.................................................. 20 1.2.7 Management as a profession................................................................... 20 1.3 The typical management areas of a school and the three levels of management............................................................................................................ 21 1.3.1 Management areas within a school.......................................................... 21 3 1.3.2 Three levels of management within the school........................................ 22 1.4 The generic functions of the three levels of management.............................. 23 1.4.1 Top level management............................................................................ 24 1.4.2 Middle level management........................................................................ 24 1.4.3 Lower level management......................................................................... 25 1.5 What the generic management functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling involves in a school context.................................................................... 26 1.5.1 Planning................................................................................................... 26 1.5.2 Organising............................................................................................... 27 1.5.3 Leading.................................................................................................... 28 1.5.4 Controlling................................................................................................ 28 1.6 The features of an autocratic and participative management styles............... 29 1.6.1 The autocratic management style............................................................ 29 1.6.2 The participative management style........................................................ 30 1.7 Common areas of organisational management.............................................. 32 1.8 Comparing male and female management styles.......................................... 33 1.9 Distinguishing management from leadership functions.................................. 35 1.10 Why leaders or managers fail...................................................................... 36 1.11 Key regulations in the Namibian Education Act 16 that public and private schools must adhere to............................................................................................ 37 1.12 Summary..................................................................................................... 38 Feedback on learning activities................................................................................ 39 Glossary................................................................................................................... 41 References............................................................................................................... 42 UNIT 2...................................................................................................................... 43 Management theories and skills............................................................................... 43 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 44 Learning outcomes................................................................................................... 44 Learning activities.................................................................................................... 44 2.1 The ‘classical-scientific management approach’ theory................................. 46 2.2 The ‘system management’ theory.................................................................. 46 2.3 The contingency / situational management theory......................................... 47 2.4 The transformational leadership/management model.................................... 49 2.5 The Total Quality Management theory........................................................... 50 4 2.6 How to manage diversity in the classroom..................................................... 52 2.7 Managing ethics in a school........................................................................... 54 2.8 Managing the school’s computer centre......................................................... 57 2.9 Managing meetings effectively....................................................................... 58 2.10 An assertive communication style............................................................... 60 2.11 How teachers could take charge of their professional development........... 63 2.12 Summary..................................................................................................... 65 Feedback on learning activities................................................................................ 66 Glossary................................................................................................................... 67 References............................................................................................................... 68 UNIT 3...................................................................................................................... 69 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 70 Learning outcomes................................................................................................... 70 Learning activities.................................................................................................... 71 3.1 The ‘Thinking Schools International’ (TSI) organisation and project............... 72 3.2 Features of a Thinking School........................................................................ 73 3.3 Research findings on the impact in primary and secondary schools where the development of thinking skills was applied.............................................................. 80 3.4 The ‘whole school strategy’ towards the development of thinking skills........... 90 3.5 Strategies for developing thinking skills that Thinking Schools apply:.............. 93 3.6 The stages of establishing a Thinking School................................................. 114 3.7 Topics that teachers need to be trained in to be able to develop teaching skills across the curriculum, e.g. left and right brain learning, deep learning, learning styles, etc............................................................................................................... 116 3.8 Resources that promote the teaching of thinking skills in early childhood and primary schools...................................................................................................... 125 3.9. Summary...................................................................................................... 132 Feedback on learning activities.............................................................................. 133 Glossary................................................................................................................. 135 References............................................................................................................. 135 UNIT 4.................................................................................................................... 136 Management issues regarding schools.................................................................. 136 Introduction............................................................................................................ 137 Learning outcomes................................................................................................. 137 5 Learning activities.................................................................................................. 138 4.1 Some common mission goals of a school.................................................... 139 4.2 Namibian whole-school development plans that could be used to guide the management regarding all areas of a school......................................................... 140 4.3 The management responsibilities of a principal............................................ 141 4.3.1 General responsibilities of the principal................................................. 141 4.3.2 Administrative responsibilities of the principal........................................ 142 4.4 The roles and responsibilities of a head of a department............................. 144 4.5 The importance of parental involvement and how to enhance their involvement 146 4.6 Government support available for primary and secondary schools.............. 149 4.7 The importance and ways of controlling/ monitoring performances and achievements of staff and learners........................................................................ 154 4.8 Information management’ in a school and the importance of it.................... 157 4.9 The ‘points system’ for managing discipline in a school............................... 159 4.11 The management of extra-curricular programmes.................................... 162 4.12 How to manage conflict with another person............................................ 163 4.13 How to manage the physical facilities of a school..................................... 164 4.14 Summary................................................................................................... 166 Feedback on learning activities.............................................................................. 167 Glossary................................................................................................................. 169 References............................................................................................................. 170 UNIT 5.................................................................................................................... 171 Basic concepts and aspects of management issues regarding the financial management of a school........................................................................................ 171 Introduction............................................................................................................ 173 Learning outcomes................................................................................................. 173 Learning activities.................................................................................................. 173 5.1 The purpose of the school development fund (see Education Act 16 of 2001) 175 5.1.1 The school development fund may not to be used for:.............................. 175 5.1.2 The school development fund can consist of:............................................ 175 5.2 The national policy (see Act 16 of 2001) regarding learners’ contribution to school funds........................................................................................................... 175 5.3 Possible sources of generating income........................................................ 176 6 5.3.1 Fund-raising........................................................................................... 176 5.3.2 Sponsorship........................................................................................... 177 5.3.3 Donations............................................................................................... 177 5.3.4 Alumni........................................................................................................ 178 5.3.5 Payment in-kind......................................................................................... 178 5.4 The value of budgets and how to determine priorities for a school budget... 179 5.4.1 Reporting on and reviewing school finances.......................................... 179 5.4.2 Determining priorities for a school budget.............................................. 180 5.5 Debating the statement: ‘Sport facilities and a school bus must be important priorities on the school budget’............................................................................... 181 5.6 The value and procedures of budgeting and record keeping........................ 181 5.6.1 Most schools use a combination of all three approaches.......................... 182 5.7 Financial spending control mechanisms at schools...................................... 183 5.8 Strategies for preventing the wasting of school resources........................... 184 5.9 Fundraising projects for school..................................................................... 185 5.10 The compilation and financial management functions of the school board according to Education Act 16 of 2001................................................................... 186 5.10.1 The constitution of the school board................................................... 186 5.10.2 The roles of the school board.................................................................. 187 5.10.3 The financial management functions of the school board................... 187 5.11 Summary................................................................................................... 188 Feedback on learning activities.............................................................................. 189 Glossary................................................................................................................. 190 References............................................................................................................. 191 UNIT 6.................................................................................................................... 192 The management of health and safety in a school................................................. 192 Introduction............................................................................................................ 193 Learning outcomes................................................................................................. 193 Learning activities.................................................................................................. 194 6.1 The features of a safe school environment................................................... 195 6.2 Maintenance of hygiene at schools and the dangers of unhygienic sanitary facilities.................................................................................................................. 196 6.2.1 The dangers of unhygienic sanitary facilities......................................... 197 6.2.2 The benefits of maintaining good hygiene standards............................. 197 7 6.2.3 General hygiene measures.................................................................... 198 6.2.4 Disease prevention................................................................................ 198 6.2.5 Gender and disability............................................................................. 199 6.3 The national policy of managing HIV/ AIDS persons in a Namibian school.. 200 6.4 The importance of regular refuse removal services...................................... 203 6.5 The importance of fencing and control at the main gate............................... 204 6.6 Typical emergency procedures for schools.................................................. 206 6.7 School rules concerning safety and health issues........................................ 209 6.8 How a school could protect learners against bullying and other types of violence.................................................................................................................. 210 6.9 How a school could promote ‘physical and social health’ of learners........... 211 6.9.1 Learners’ access to good nutrition......................................................... 212 6.9.2 Obesity................................................................................................... 212 6.9.3 Exercise/ exercising............................................................................... 213 6.9.4 Social health.......................................................................................... 213 6.10 Summary................................................................................................... 214 Feedback on learning activities.............................................................................. 214 Glossary................................................................................................................. 216 References............................................................................................................. 216 UNIT 7.................................................................................................................... 217 Evaluate and discuss personnel management issues............................................ 217 Introduction............................................................................................................ 218 Learning outcomes................................................................................................. 218 Learning activities.................................................................................................. 219 7.1 The importance of and criteria for selecting well qualified staff.................... 220 7.2 The importance and content of a staff induction and mentor system........... 222 7.3 The key theories of motivation and demotivation and how school management could create a happy working environment for staff............................................... 224 7.3.1 Taylor’s theory of motivation.................................................................. 225 7.3.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.................................................................. 225 7.3.3 Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation............................................. 226 7.3.4 Reinforcement theory............................................................................. 227 7.3.5 Expectancy theory (Vroom)................................................................... 228 7.3.6 De-motivation......................................................................................... 229 8 7.3.7 Creating a happy working environment.................................................. 230 7.4 How to develop a team spirit amongst staff.................................................. 231 7.5 How to manage personal stress................................................................... 232 7.6 The professional code of conduct for teachers in Namibia........................... 233 7.7 How the school management could provide for in-service training of staff... 234 7.8 The extra-curricular workload of teachers in private schools versus public schools................................................................................................................... 235 7.9 The principles and procedures for a performance appraisal system for teachers that could operate in Namibia.................................................................. 236 7.10 How a performance appraisal system could link up with a teacher licensing system in Namibia.................................................................................................. 239 7.11 Why teachers and school management should interpret the progress results of learners.............................................................................................................. 240 7.12 How a school sport event should be managed effectively......................... 240 7.13 Summary................................................................................................... 244 Feedback on learning activities.............................................................................. 245 Glossary................................................................................................................. 247 References............................................................................................................. 248 Appendix: Codes of conduct for teachers............................................................... 249 9 I. Word of welcome This course seeks to examine different school management principles and theories and how they could be applied to ensure effective management of schools. In addition, main functions of educational leaders and aspects of decision-making and problem solving will be critically analysed. To become an exceptional educational manager in a rapidly changing world, you need to be equipped to deal with tomorrow’s challenges. This course offers an opportunity to those who seek to be accomplished and effective managers. We aspire to develop competent, entrepreneurial, internationally oriented and socially responsible managers. We believe that schools and colleges need managers who can think beyond the logic of a single classroom or even department and take into consideration broader educational and societal interests. In today’s world, people like you will play a significant role in shaping the Namibian educational environment. You will need to possess leadership, managerial, cross-cultural and organisational skills. We will ensure that upon the completion of your studies you will be well-equipped to face the aforementioned issues. Educational management prepares learners to become transformational leaders who will strategically manage and lead educational organisations. Educational practitioners with demonstrated analytical, critical and innovative thinking have the skills and the ability to improve the performance of educational institutions. Distance learning enables employed educational professionals to develop the knowledge and skills to improve the productivity of their institutions, provide leadership qualities and achieve professional goals. It is hoped that your engagement with this course will benefit you by providing guidelines, insights and tools that you can use to meet your immediate challenges and needs as school leaders and prepare you for the road ahead when you eventually become a principal. II. Time required This module involves part-time study, perhaps while many of you are working at schools or elsewhere. Much of what you learn will therefore be dictated by your own effort and commitment. The most successful students are not necessarily the cleverest or the most experienced, but rather the ones who are most disciplined, most organised, most willing to reflect critically on their own learning and most able to apply theory to practice and manage their time efficiently. However, this course of study is also practice-based. This means that it does not only require you to read and write but also to apply what you have learnt, to reflect on the success or failure of the application and to learn from your mistakes so that you can improve. Learning is, therefore, not simply a theoretical exercise but also a practical, experiential one. Students will still have ample opportunity to apply the home i educational sphere theory to real world assignments and projects in the schools in which they work. This module carries 10-12 credits, depending on the qualification registered for, which will take roughly 100-120 hours of notional learning to complete. III. How to use this study guide The management of educational institutions is an important factor in promoting quality education. The aims of this module are to enable students to develop the following theoretical understanding, values and competencies: describe basic concepts and aspects of management; features of a school as an organisation; discuss management theories and skills; discuss management issues regarding secondary schools; explain issues regarding the financial management of a school; explain the management of health and safety in a secondary school. Each unit consists of a table of contents and an introduction which provides an overview of the unit. You are also allowed to do various activities and some feedback is given regarding the activities. Still, students have to read the prescribed and additional literature to get comprehensive answers to the questions posted in the activities. This module provides an overview of what management is about in a school setting. As an aspiring principal, it begins a process of developing an understanding of the challenges that principals face daily and allows you to explore your realities and decide on new and better actions. In addition, you will look at some of the international trends in management and leadership. You will actively participate in a learning process as a student to grow or enhance your competence in various areas related to your management role in the educational system. It is likely that you already have many examples of your involvement, project plans and budgets you developed, policies you established in your school, minutes of disciplinary hearings, and other records of actions you took to enhance the administration of your school if you have been involved in school management or leadership for several years. The main purpose of this module is to give you an understanding of some of the debates around leading and managing schools and the realities you have to face on a daily basis; it will reflect on yourself as a team player; a leader and manager of the school, and finally, a reflection of your work as a present day manager within the context of the broader educational field. The module contains various texts. Some of these form the basis of the activities; others serve as examples of the kind of tasks that you are required to perform during this and possibly other modules. The set of templates are provided for you to apply what you have learnt and afterwards when you conduct workshops, do research, develop policies, write reports and so on. In this sense they serve as resources that should assist you in managing your institution in an effective and efficient way. ii Module requirements and expectations: The study module acts as your teacher/lecturer, providing you with information, guiding you through activities and stimulating you to ask questions, find answers and share what you learn with your colleagues and fellow students. It is informed by the assumption that learning is a process rather than an event and that students and lecturers need to accept joint responsibility for its success. The information in the module is, therefore, not a sufficient source of learning in and of itself. You, the student, must complement the information in the module by reading, researching, discussing/debating and reflecting on the issues and challenges raised in the module. Only then will your learning be an enriching experience. The attendance of all contact and practical training opportunities that IOL organises is compulsory. Acquire the study guide/module and all relevant prescribed study materials or recommended web site information. All assignments must be handed in on time. Students with special circumstances struggling to meet deadlines should contact IOL in time. All forms of academic dishonesty such as cheating and plagiarism are prohibited. You are encouraged to manage your study time well and engage in learning circles. Focus on ‘understanding’ (i.e. asking What? Why? and How? questions) before ‘memorising’ content. Admission to examinations depends upon successfully attaining the required continuous assessment/semester mark. IV. Exit learning outcomes Upon completion of this module, students should be able to: 1. Describe basic concepts and aspects of management 2. Discuss management theories and skills 3. Analyse the features of establishing and managing a ‘Thinking Skills School’ 4. Discuss management areas and issues regarding schools 5. Examine issues regarding the financial management of a school 6. Analyse the management of health and safety in a school 7. Evaluate and discuss personnel management issues. V. Study supports available Study guide, face-to-face sessions, IOL centres, feedback on assignments VI. Module assessment policy A 50% semester / continuous assessment mark is required for admission to examinations. iii The duration of an examination for 10-12 credits is two and a half hours and 120 marks. A 60% pass is required for practical work and such work could account for 50% of the continuous assessment mark. A final pass mark of 50% is required, calculated by 70% of the examination mark and 30% of the semester / continuous assessment mark. A sub-minimum of 50% must be attained in the examination. The setting and marking of examination papers are moderated. All subjects have to be passed. VII. Verbs’ thinking processes Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification that defines varying levels of intelligence, including thinking, learning, and understanding. Bloom’s Taxonomy is used to improve teaching methods, assessments, and education circular. Institutes make use of bloom’s taxonomy to improve curriculum, assessments, and teaching methods. The verbs that are associated with cognitive function include affective verbs and psychomotor verbs. The phrases can be described as follows. Affective verbs: look, show, discuss, appreciate, evaluate, value, display, and practise. Psychomotor verbs: draw a mind map, write a job application letter, design an overhead transparency, collect materials to do an experiment, interview someone in an occupation of your choice, find printed materials on the topic of…, demonstrate how to do…, role play how you would thank someone for a party. The following is a list of verbs which describe different levels of Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy. These verbs will be used frequently in assignments and learning activities. Each verb describes various forms of thinking and processing of information. VERB MEANING / THINKING REQUIRED Analyse Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/components/patterns or relationships. Show why they are important, how components are related, and what theories they reflect. iv Calculate A numerical answer from given figures or information is required – the process or method leading to the answer must be shown. Comment Describe something and discuss it briefly by giving the positive and negative points. Compare Indicate similarities/resemblances and differences of phenomena regarding particular criteria. Conclude the similarities and differences, emphasising the similarities. Very often, a table format is used to compare phenomena. A description of one phenomenon after the other is not a comparison. Contrast Show how things are different or opposite regarding particular criteria. Look only for differences, not similarities, as in the case for ‘compare’. Criticise Give a reasoned judgement of something after carefully weighing facts, information or perspectives. Provide positive and negative points – do not only emphasise the negative side. Draw a conclusion. Deduce Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law, principle or context, to conclude reasoning about it. Define Give the precise, brief meaning of something, often referring to etymological roots of concepts. Indicate what features are included and excluded. Demonstrate Perform the necessary operations; show by example. Describe Provide detailed features of an issue or stages of a process in a logical sequence, using numbers and headings and proper sentences. Discussing the subject by referring to arguments for and against is unnecessary. Determine Use the information given to work out the answer. Discuss Give a clear description and then argue about features by pointing out positive and negative features, arriving at a conclusion. v Distinguish Describe two phenomena / things according to relevant /differentiate criteria. Point out clearly the differences between the two sets. Same as contrast. Estimate Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of dimensions, the impact of something or the numerical calculation of something. Evaluate Determine the value/worth/quality / success of something according to specific criteria. Explain Describe something and indicate relationships between things, clarifying the why (reasons) and how (examples) of features. Find A general term that means calculate, determine or measure. Identify Recognise and name / list features. Illustrate Describe by giving examples or making drawings. Interpret Describe something, explain its meaning, significance or impact, or the meaning of graphic information. Investigate Identify detailed features of something/problem /examine systematically and discuss them according to a given directive, concluding. List / state Present a list of names, facts, objects, etc. in a particular order. Outline Give an overview of and indicate the main features of something concisely and systematically. Predict Make a logical deduction from your own knowledge or the information given and suggest what may happen based on the available information. Relate Indicate and describe the relationship/connections between variables. Summarise Give a brief account of the essence of a matter through the main ideas – no details or examples – focussing on connections and meaning. vi VIII. Prescribed textbooks The National Professional Standards for Teachers in Namibia. Van Deventer, I. (2003). Successfully Involving the Community. In I. van Deventer and A. G. Kruger. An Educator’s Guide to School Management Skills. Pretoria: Van Schaik. IX. References in IOL Centres Clarke, A. 2008. The Handbook of School Management. South Africa: MacMillan. Van der Westhuizen, P. C. (Editor) 2008. Effective Educational Management. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers. Mestry, R. & Bischoff, T. 2009. Financial School Management explained. 3rd edition. South Africa: Pearson Mark schemes should also be in accordance with the level of thinking / difficulty required by verbs, e.g. the answer to a ‘discuss question of 12 marks’ should be allocated marks for the facts (e.g. 7) and marks for the discussion (e.g. 5). Marks for the higher-level verbs can be from 20% to 50%, depending on the grade of the learners. IX. Plagiarism Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s work or ideas and presenting them as your own. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited and includes: a) Copying text from other students and other sources such as study guides and internet sources. b) Use of quotations without referencing the original source/ author. c) Retyping existing text and merely acknowledging the source in the footnote or bibliography. To avoid plagiarism: a) Reformulate existing text using your own words to explain what you have read. b) Relate ideas or concepts without repeating the original source to the letter. vii c) Accurately cite sources in footnotes and the bibliography. The aim of assignments is not to reproduce existing material, but to ascertain whether you have the ability to incorporate existing texts, add your own interpretation and/or critique to the texts and offer a creative solution to existing problems. Assignments are individual tasks and not group activities (unless explicitly indicated as group activities). IMPORTANT WARNING Students who submit copied text(s) will automatically fair the assignment and disciplinary steps may be taken by IOL. It is also unacceptable to do somebody else’s work, to lend your work to them or to make your work available to them to copy – be careful and do not make your work available to anyone! (You will also be penalised together with the other student!) X. Icons used in the study guide You are encouraged to read a variety of books, journals and other reading sources to find out more about the relevant topics. This icon shows learning activities that must be completed. Use a separate exercise book for this purpose and use it throughout the year - especially when you do revision for the examination. This icon shows the learning outcomes for a specific unit. This icon shows feedback on learning activities. Feedback tells you what you should have done in the activity, or what is done in the activity, or where you can find more information on the activity. viii UNIT 1 Basic concepts and aspects of management Introduction................................................................................................................ 3 Learning outcomes..................................................................................................... 3 Learning activities...................................................................................................... 4 Readings.................................................................................................................... 5 1.1 The concepts ‘management’, ‘manager’ and ‘administration’............................... 5 1.1.1 Management.................................................................................................. 5 1.1.2 Manager..................................................................................................... 8 1.1.3 Administration............................................................................................ 9 1.2 The importance of effective classroom and school management and the statement: “Management is an art, a science and a profession.’............................. 13 1.2.1 Classroom management.......................................................................... 13 1.2.2 Creating favourable teaching and learning environment.............................. 14 1.2. 3 Importance of effective classroom management........................................ 15 1.2.4 School management................................................................................ 17 1.2.5 Management is an art, a science and a profession.................................. 18 1.2.6 Management as both a science and an art.................................................. 20 1.2.7 Management as a profession................................................................... 20 1.3 The typical management areas of a school and the three levels of management............................................................................................................ 21 1.3.1 Management areas within a school.......................................................... 21 1.3.2 Three levels of management within the school........................................ 22 1.4 The generic functions of the three levels of management.............................. 23 1.4.1 Top level management............................................................................ 24 1.4.2 Middle level management........................................................................ 24 1.4.3 Lower level management......................................................................... 25 1.5 What the generic management functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling involves in a school context.................................................................... 26 1.5.1 Planning................................................................................................... 26 1.5.2 Organising............................................................................................... 27 1.5.3 Leading.................................................................................................... 28 1.5.4 Controlling................................................................................................ 28 1 1.6 The features of an autocratic and participative management styles............... 29 1.6.1 The autocratic management style............................................................ 29 1.6.2 The participative management style........................................................ 30 1.7 Common areas of organisational management.............................................. 32 1.8 Comparing male and female management styles.......................................... 33 1.9 Distinguishing management from leadership functions.................................. 35 1.10 Why leaders or managers fail...................................................................... 36 1.11 Key regulations in the Namibian Education Act 16 that public and private schools must adhere to............................................................................................ 37 1.12 Summary..................................................................................................... 38 Feedback on learning activities................................................................................ 39 Glossary................................................................................................................... 41 References............................................................................................................... 42 2 Introduction This unit serves as an introduction to your study course in Educational Management 2. Teachers in positions of authority are referred to as educational managers, administrators or leaders. I hope you also have heard of people referring to your principal, senior teacher and HODs as the management or leadership of the school. The unit discusses the key concepts and theories relating to management as a whole. You will also learn about the different styles and levels of management and the management functions as they relate to schools. In many ways a school can be viewed as a form of business because it needs good management in order to run effectively. Just as a business needs to make a profit, so a school needs to produce a culture of learning that supports high-quality education and optimises the development of its learners. Learning outcomes After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to: 1.1 Describe the concept ‘management’, ‘manager’ and ‘administration’ 1.2 Explain the importance of effective classroom and school management and the statement: “Management is an art, a science and a profession.’ 1.3 Describe the typical management areas of a school and three levels of management 1.4 Explain the generic management functions of top management, middle management and supervisors 1.5 Explain what the generic management functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling involves in a school context 1.6 Compare the features of an autocratic and participative management style 1.7 Describe the common areas of organisational management 1.8 Compare male and female management styles 1.9 Distinguish management from leadership functions 1.10 Evaluate why leaders or managers fail 1.11 Clarify the key regulations in the Namibian Education Act 16 that public and private schools must adhered to. 3 Learning activities Use a separate exercise book for this purpose and use it throughout the year – especially also when you start doing revision for the examination. Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback at the end of this unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular question. It is good preparation for examination skills. Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible. 1. Write down TWO realistic individual goals that you have for the next six months and then write down how you will reach these goals. 2. Identify the different managers who may exist within a school environment. 3. Explain what the word "management" means to you, list the four functions of management and plan an event. 4. List ten things that you can do to make managing your classroom easier. 5. Discuss how teaching a lesson on recycling plastics would be both a science and an art. 6. Before studying further, list as many areas as you can think of that need managing in a school 7. Compile a list of all the different managers that might be involved in running a school. 8. Explain what the term "levels of management" means and list as many differences as you can between top level management and middle level management. 9. Describe how you would use the control process to establish if the planned outcome of academic excellence in your school has been achieved. 10. Case study: managers make a difference 11. Read the statement regarding female leaders and answer the question that follows. 12. Suggest ways in which a school principal can demonstrate good leadership. 13. Name four reasons why leaders can fail. 14. List the most important parts of the Namibian Education Act 16 that public and private schools must comply with. 4 Readings Recommended reading Clarke, A. 2008. The Handbook of School Management. South Africa: MacMillan Van der Westhuizen, P. C. (Editor) 2008. Effective Educational Management. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers. Additional reading Daft, Richard L. 2011. Management. Mason, USA: Cengage 1.1 The concepts ‘management’, ‘manager’ and ‘administration’ 1.1.1 Management Many times we take terms for granted. We think we understand them, but when we are asked to define them, we only start to realise how some terms are not so easy to understand. So stop for a while and ask yourself this simple question: What is management? Some say the term “management” includes different functions undertaken to accomplish a task. Others describe it as a specific type of work in education which comprises those regulative tasks or actions executed by a person (e.g., school principal) or body (e.g., school management) in a position of authority. Management is the process of coordinating the efforts of people to accomplish specific goals and objectives using the available resources efficiently and effectively. Management involves dealing with or controlling things or people. This can happen for many different reasons, for example, a school needs to be managed, as does a business, a football team or a birthday party. Within a business there may be several different departments, such as the sales, accounts, and production departments. Each different department needs to be managed so that it runs efficiently. There may also be a general manager to co-ordinate all the departments so that they work together. 5 Educational management theorists (people who write about educational management) write two sets of educational 16 management theories. One is the set that concentrates mainly on efficiency and another is the set that focuses mainly on effectiveness. Efficiency is about doing things the right way. It involves eliminating waste and optimising processes. Effectiveness is about doing the right things. The two, efficiency and effectiveness, are not the same. An efficient educational manager is not necessarily an effective manager. Efficient managers ensure that they do management tasks correctly, irrespective of whether the tasks are the right tasks. I am saying, an efficient educational manager may, for example, work correctly to achieve the wrong objectives. Effective educational managers make sure that, for example, the work is done correctly to achieve correct objectives. A good management style is a blend (combination) of both efficiency and effectiveness. There is no point in acting efficiently if your actions will not have the desired effect. Now, what management techniques do educational managers use? Management techniques can be viewed as either bottom-up, top down, or collaborative processes. In the top-down approach, the manager makes the decisions which the subordinates have no choice but to accept. It is common in our schools where educational managers make decisions and teachers must accept without questioning. On the other hand, in the bottom-up approach, employees submit proposals to their managers who, in turn, channel the proposals further. In other words, the subordinates decide, while the manager facilitates. Collaborative management requires the managers to collaborate with the subordinates. For example, they make decisions together. School managers are just human beings. They do not know it all. They consult other stakeholders. In collaborative management, the manager is primus inter pares (first of the equals). That is the main focus of management in education, but what or who is an educational manager? The educational manager is a broker, coach, facilitator, catalyst, and facilitator. The most important work we do today is think, so an educational manager needs to ask thought-provoking questions to inspire individuals to come up with fresh solutions and complete mental tasks. Due to this, educational managers now resemble facilitators’ more than traditional decision-makers. They still make judgments, but unsuccessful educational managers tend to think too much for themselves, preventing them from getting the most out of all the resources at their disposal. The key is that educational managers now manage alongside their staff members in a democracy. They make use of the knowledge 6 There are four main management tasks: planning, organising, leading and controlling. The success of a business and its ability to reach its goals and objectives will depend on the quality of its mana gement and how effectively these four main management tasks are carried out. Organising Planning Arrange business activities and resources Look at the future, set goals and objectives in such a way that goals and objectives are and decide how to carry out activities of the met. Organising includes setting up a business to achieve set goals and objectives. structure to give duties, orders and responsibilities to other people in the business. Management Tasks Management Task (POLC) (POLC) Control Leading Check to see that activities are carried out Influence, guide, motivate and inspire others and everything is running smoothly and to work effectively towards reaching the according to plan. It involves taking action to goals of the business. ensure that goals and objectives are met through careful observation and feedback Figure 1.1.1 The four main management tasks Management includes the following characteristics: Management is goal-oriented: The success of any management activity is assessed by its achievement of the predetermined goals or objectives. Management is a purposeful activity. It is a tool which uses human and physical resources to fulfil pre-determined goals. Management combines human, physical and financial resources: In an organisation, human beings work with non-human resources like materials, financial assets, buildings and so on. Management integrates human efforts with those resources. Management is continuous: Management is an ongoing process. It involves the continuous handling of problems and issues. It is concerned with identifying the problem and taking appropriate steps to solve it. 7 Management is all-pervasive: Management is required in all types of organisations whether they are educational, political, social, cultural or business- oriented, because it helps and directs various efforts towards a definite purpose. Management is necessary whenever more than one person is engaged in working towards a common goal. Management is a group activity: Management is less concerned with an individual’s efforts than with the groups. It involves the use of group effort to achieve a predetermined goal. Learning activities 1 (10 minutes) Everyone makes plans in their everyday lives. For example, in studying this course, you are planning to improve your career prospects. Instructions: a) Use your own words to define the concept “management in education” b) Differentiate between the terms “efficiency” and “effectiveness”. 1.1.2 Manager A manager is a person in charge of managing a certain group of tasks, or a certain department of an organisation. A manager often has a staff of people who report to him/her. For example, the sales manager of a furniture store will have sales people who report directly to him/her. As we have seen in 1.1.1 the main tasks of a manager are planning, organising, leading and control (POLC). Good management is vital for any organisation to be successful. The manager makes plans, directs his team and motivates them to achieve their goals. In a large company, every department may have a manager, for example, marketing manager, accounts manager, research manager and transport manager etc. In a small business one person may undertake all the management responsibilities. 8 A good manager taps into the talents and resources of those he/she is managing in order to support and bring out the best in others. Characteristics of good managers include: Creativity Structure Intuition Knowledge Commitment Being human Versatility Discipline/focus Understand the big picture but also pay attention to the small details. Learning activities 2 (10 minutes) Identify the different managers who may exist within a school environment. 1.1.3 Administration Some literature does not distinguish between “administration” and “management”. Some literature uses them interchangeably as if they mean the same thing. The Latin word “administration” means both “management” and “administration”. In some countries such as the USA the term “educational administration” is used throughout. In Europe, a distinction is made between “educational administration” and “educational management”. There is a tendency to either deny or oversimplify the difference between “administration” and “management”. Administration is the act of managing duties, responsibilities or rules. Administration includes the overall determination of policies, the setting of major objectives, the identification of general purposes and the laying down of broad programmes and projects. It refers to guidance, leadership and channelling the group's efforts towards common goals. An example of administration is the activities of the principal in the school who manages the staff and implements the school system's rules. 9 a. The school offices (administrative centre) The school offices form the administrative centre of a school and comprise the offices of the school principal and other members of the school administration, as well as the offices of the secretaries and clerks. These offices form the nucleus of the school’s administration, and visitors are usually received in these offices. Therefore the administrative centre should be well organised and managed, attractive, tidy and inviting. The following are some of the important considerations of the administrative centre: ▪ The principal supervises and directs the functioning of the administrative centre but may delegate this task to some other people like the clerk. ▪ The principal and other administrators should develop effective human relations with other staff members and stakeholders from outside the school. ▪ Equipment such as computers, filing cabinets and small office items should be in adequate supply to complete office work efficiently and effectively. ▪ An orderly and accessible arrangement should be made for storing records and supplies. b. Some duties for administrators Some of the administrative duties performed by the principal and other administrators are as follows: ▪ Communicating: The communication network of the school can be divided into the following two types: external communication and internal communication. ▪ Dealing with reports: This involves storing, summarising and retrieving information so that it can be supplied to organisations that require it (such as school inspector’s office, regional office, etc.). ▪ Processing material: The administrative staff is responsible for the typing and duplication of a number of documents for staff members, school administration members and other stakeholders. ▪ Dealing with school organisational matters: A variety of activities in the school have to be organised and publicised, 10 e.g. the school timetable, examination and test timetables, and the duty roosters. ▪ Administering school attendance: Drawing up guidelines on and controlling school attendance, as well as keeping the daily attendance registers, are also aspects of routine of school administration. ▪ Procuring stock and equipment: School stock includes expendable items (such as stationery) and durable items (such as desks and chairs), as well as equipment (such as computers). ▪ Administering the school finances: One important function here is a systematic bookkeeping system. ▪ Serving as a control centre for the operation of the physical facilities: For example, administrators are responsible for properly maintaining the school buildings. The difference between Management and Administration can be summarised as follows: Management Administration Meaning Management is the art of It is concerned with the formulation of getting things done broad objectives, plans and policies. through others by directing their efforts towards the achievement of pre- determined goals. Nature Management is an Administration is a decision-making executing function. function. Process Management decides who Administration decides what is to be should do something and done and when it is to be done. how he or she should do it. 11 Function Management is a doing Administration is a thinking function function because because plans and policies are managers get work done determined by it. under their supervision. Skills Technical and human skills Conceptual and human skills Influence Management decisions are Public opinion, government policies, influenced by the religious organisations, customs, etc managers' values, influence the administration. opinions, beliefs and decisions. Level Top, middle and lower Top and middle level function level function Every manager is concerned with both administrative management functions and operative management functions. However, the managers who are higher up in the hierarchy devote more time to administrative functions, and the lower level devotes more time to directing and controlling the performance of employees. Figure 1.1.2 The degree of administration and management performed by the different levels of management. 12 Learning activities 3 (10 minutes) 1. In your view, why is it so difficult to differentiate between administration and management?. 2. In your own words, define the term “administration”. 3. Consider that your school's grade 12 students are organising a fundraising activity, like a walkathon, to generate money for new computers. Using the four primary management responsibilities you must complete; describe how you would manage this event. 1.2 The importance of effective classroom and school management and the statement: “Management is an art, a science and a profession.’ Effective management is as important in a school and a classroom as it is in a business. 1.2.1 Classroom management Classroom management is an important part of effective teaching and learning. Where poor classroom management is evident, the learners and teacher reflect poor performance. As learners become more demanding for meaningful education, the need for better management in the classroom increases. Good classroom management results in a good learning atmosphere in the classroom, with enthusiastic responses to the teaching and generally good classroom discipline. In this unit you will learn some strategies of how to manage your class effectively. Classroom management is how educators ensure that classroom lessons run smoothly. This includes the four management tasks or planning, organising, leading and controlling skills. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behaviour. (This is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many educators.) There are many different theories and ideas about classroom management. One example is affirmation teaching. Affirmation teaching creates a classroom/school climate that values (and teaches) respect, understanding and learner achievement in a non-competitive but stimulating environment. Through basic understandings, learners need no punitive rules or laws to address differences. 13 Evertson and Weinstein explain classroom management as how the educator creates an environment that supports and facilitates academic and social-emotional learning. 1.2.2 Creating favourable teaching and learning environment a. Seating arrangements Learners should be seated in such a way that they will be able to see and hear all that goes on in the classroom. They should be able to see you speaking, moving, demonstrating and making illustrations. Similarly, you should be able to see all the learners in the classroom. That will help you keep track of every learner’s activities and correct misdemeanours (minor bad conduct) as early as possible. Seat all short learners in front and tall ones behind. Usually, it is good for every learner to have his or her permanent place to sit. This will save a lot of time and indiscipline. Also, consider handicapped learners such as the partially deaf and poorly sighted children in the class. They should be seated in front, near you and on the chalkboard so that they may benefit as much as possible. The seating arrangements depend on some factors, for example, the teacher's method. But what is important is that children should be seated so they can see and hear properly and communicate easily. b. Psychological aspect These refer to interpersonal relationships between you and the learners and among the learners themselves. The relationship between you and your learners must be good and friendly. Every learner should feel accepted and that you show interest in each learner’s progress. The relationship among learners should also be healthy. A learner who is often laughed at or beaten lives in fear and loses concentration in lessons. You should encourage and foster friendliness among the learners. As a teacher in the class, you should be aware that you are working with learners with individual differences which influence classroom performance. You should treat and provide for every child in the classroom accordingly. Use polite language. This is useful in creating a favourable climate for teaching and learning. Learners are human beings with their likes, dislikes, interests and feelings. Some of them are fast, while others are slow learners. All these should be taken into account when working with learners. 14 Many teachers forget that when learners get everything wrong, the teacher, not the learners, is to blame. If the learner has not learned, the teacher has not taught. c. Professional aspects These refer to your ability to help learners to learn and to monitor their progress. The learners’ learning needs your monitoring to ensure their progress. One way to do this is to give a chance to learners to speak and/or read while you listen carefully. You can then correct the learner. Another way of monitoring the learners’ progress is to give them exercises which they must do in writing in exercise books. Monitor the progress by marking the work and give appropriate help in the form of remarks. d. Marking Marking is another area that needs to be considered seriously if you are to turn your class into a favourable environment for teaching 155 15 5 and learning. The marking system should be meaningful. It does not help a learner if you simply cross out a whole written exercise. You should indicate by symbols, such as underlining, circling etc., where the mistake lies. An indication of the cross (X) sign in the learner’s work does not help the learner. It is discouraging. Go through the work, find out where mistakes are, and bring them to the learner’s attention for improvement. After marking each exercise, homework, assignment or test, record marks in the progress chart. The record helps you determine whether each learner is making steady progress, is static or going down in performance. This helps you to single out the learners who need encouragement and counselling. The record also helps you to find out if your teaching is effective and to change your methods of teaching if the standard is low. 1.2. 3 Importance of effective classroom management ▪ It keeps class under control and in this way it makes the best use of the available time. ▪ It ensures that the learners engage in the learning tasks that you have set for them. Without proper class management techniques, it may be impossible for learners to concentrate on given tasks and achieve the objectives of the lesson. ▪ Effective class management also makes the children independent and responsible. This can be done through sharing leadership functions with the learners. 15 ▪ It develops an individual’s self-worth. By accepting, trusting and respecting your learners, you help them build up confidence and trust which can lead to successful teaching and learning. ▪ It minimises unacceptable learner behaviour. In this way, it helps maintain discipline necessary for successful learning. ▪ Effective management promotes co-operative, mutual and interpersonal relationships such as teacher–learner and learner- learner relationships. These good interpersonal relationships are necessary for effective learning and teaching. ▪ Good class management creates opportunities for learners to work together. Working together leads to the exchange of ideas and experiences and the development of acceptable social relationships. ▪ Effective class management promotes proper learning. It ensures that the materials resources are readily available for use by both the teacher and learners. No time is unnecessarily wasted in hunting for teaching and learning material. Learners know where to find their learning material, where to store it after use, who should do what and when. There is orderliness in the classroom. Classroom management and the management of learner’s conduct are skills that educators acquire and perfect over time. Effective teaching requires considerable skill in managing the many tasks and situations that occur in the classroom each day. The skills associated with effective classroom management are only acquired with practice, feedback, and a willingness to learn from mistakes. Learning activities 4 (15 minutes) How do you create a conducive learning atmosphere in your class? Time management in the classroom Managing time effectively is an important part of classroom management. Class time can be divided into four overlapping categories: allocated time, instructional time, engaged time and academic learning time. a. Allocated time 16 Allocated time is the total time allotted for teaching, learning and routine classroom procedures such as the attendance register and announcements. Allocated time is what appears on a learner's schedule, for example "Maths Literacy: 9:50-10:30 a.m." or "Fine Arts 1:15-2:00 p.m." b. Instructional time Instructional time is the time that remains after routine classroom procedures are completed. This is the time when teaching and learning actually takes place. For example, the time after the teacher has taken the attendance register at the beginning of the lesson, or read out any notices. c. Engaged time Engaged time is also called 'time on task'. During engaged time, learners are actively involved in learning activities—asking and responding to questions, completing worksheets and exercises or preparing presentations. d. Academic learning time Academic learning time is the time when learners are actively and successfully engaged in learning activities. Engaged time and academic learning time, if applied properly, should become the same thing; however, learners can be busily engaged during lesson time in activities that have nothing to do with the academic learning process. Effective classroom management will maximise academic learning time so that learners are able to grasp new content in the subject being taught. 1.2.4 School management The school offices form the school's administrative centre and, led by the school principal, are responsible for the school's management, including its financial management. The management of a school must be efficient, organised and effective. This involves the four key management tasks as discussed in 1.1 (POLC). 17 The Guidelines for School Management (Gauteng (b: B31, 1-B3, 3) (van Deventer 2013. 229) describe the main responsibilities of the school principal as: Instructional leadership Teaching duties Extra-curricular duties Interaction with stakeholders Communication matters. The purpose of educational management is to bring pupils and teachers together in conditions that will successfully promote the aims of education. School management is concerned with both human and material resources. The human elements include learners, parents, teachers and other employees in general – such as those of the Ministry of Education at local and national levels. On the practical side, there are the finances, the buildings and grounds, equipment and instructional supplies. Besides that, there are ideas, laws and regulations, all of which affect the educational process. The blending of these 'parts' into a 'whole' is educational management. 1.2.5 Management is an art, a science and a profession Much controversy has arisen regarding whether management is an art, a science, or both. It has been said that "management is the oldest of the arts and youngest of the sciences'. This explains the changing nature of management. However, to have a clearer picture of the issue, it is necessary to understand both these aspects separately and together. 1. Management as an art: An art is a personalised application of general theoretical principles for achieving the best possible results. Art refers to the way in which specific things are done; it indicates how an object can be achieved. ‘Art’ implies the application of knowledge and skill to bring about desired results. Art has the following characteristics: Practical knowledge Every art requires some practical knowledge; therefore learning the theory alone is not sufficient. It is imperative to know the practical application of theoretical principles. A manager can 18 never be successful just by obtaining a degree or diploma in management; he must also have the know-how to apply the various principles to real-life situations. Personal skill Every manager has their own way of managing things based on his or her knowledge, experience and personality. Creativity Every artist has an element of creativity. That is why they aim at producing something that has never existed before; this requires a combination of intelligence and imagination. Thus, management is also creative like any other art. Perfection through practice “Practice makes perfect.” Every artist becomes more and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly, managers learn through trial and error initially but applying management principles many times over many years make them perfect in the job of managing. Goal-oriented Art is result-oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner, management is also directed towards accomplishing pre-determined goals. Managers use various resources like people, money, material, machinery and methods to promote the growth of an organisation. It can be seen that management is undoubtedly an art because a manager uses his skill, knowledge and experience to solve various problems that arise in the workplace. 2. Management as a science Science may be described as a systematised body of knowledge based on pertinent findings and exact principles capable of verification. It is based on established truths and its findings apply safely in all situations. In this sense, management is a science because it has developed some systematised knowledge. Like other sciences, management has also developed certain principles, laws and generalisations which are universal. However, management is not an exact science in the way that sciences such as physics, chemistry 19 and biology are. The main reason for the 'inexactness' of the science of management is that it deals with people and it is very difficult to predict their behaviour accurately. In this way, management falls in the 'social sciences' category. 1.2.6 Management as both a science and an art Management is both an art and a science. It is considered a science because it has an organised body of knowledge which contains certain universal truths. It is an art because managing requires certain skills which managers should possess. Science provides knowledge and art deals with applying knowledge and skills. For a manager to be successful in his profession, he must acquire both knowledge of the science and the art of applying it. 1.2.7 Management as a profession Over the past few decades, the manager's task has become specialised and there has been an increased demand for professionally qualified managers. A profession is a paid occupation, especially one that involves prolonged training and a formal qualification, entry to which is usually regulated by a representative body. The characteristics of a professional are: Specialised knowledge Every professional must make a deliberate effort to acquire expertise in the principles and techniques of their profession. A school principal must have the required commitment and involvement to acquire expertise in the science of school management. Formal education and training There are several colleges and universities which provide the education and training required for specific professions. Social obligations Professionals are often motivated by the desire to serve society. Social norms influence their action. Social norms and values influence their actions: a manager is responsible not only to the owners of the business or organisation, but also to society and 20 therefore he is expected to provide quality goods or services. A code of conduct A profession's members must abide by a code of conduct which contains certain rules and regulations, norms of honesty, integrity and special ethics. Any member violating the code of conduct can be punished and his/her membership can be withdrawn. Learning activities 5 (15 minutes) Discuss how teaching a lesson on recycling plastics would be both a science and an art 1.3 The typical management areas of a school and the three levels of management A school is a complex organisation that needs managing in just the same way as any business organisation. 1.3.1 Management areas within a school A school is a complex organisation with many different areas that need managing. Learning activities 6 (15 minutes) Before studying further, list as many areas as you can think of that need managing in a school Now examine the following diagram which indicates the various education management areas within a school. 21 Management areas Staff affairs Learner affairs Curricular affairs Extra-curricular affairs School community Administration relations Physical facilities Financial affairs Fig 1.3.1 Education management areas Within a school each of these management areas may be under the leadership of a different manager, each reporting to the overall head of management, normally the school principal and the school board. 1.3.2 Three levels of management within the school Within any organisation, there are three levels of management: low-level, middle, and top-level. Each level of management has different responsibilities and different levels of authority. We will examine the different levels of management in more detail in 1.4. Within the school, the principal occupies the position of top-level manager. The principal is accountable for providing leadership and management that is consistent with Namibian national legislation and the policies and priorities of the Namibian Government. The principal is also accountable to the Minister of Education for the quality of learner outcomes. Each management area in figure 1.3 may have a manager to oversee it. Heads of the different subject departments can be viewed as middle level managers, as can the financial bursar of the school. Heads of department are responsible for the staff within their departments and for the correct implementation of the syllabus and overall quality of teaching. An example of lower levels of management is the supervisor of the cleaning staff or the supervisor of the groundsmen. 22 Learning activities 7 (15 minutes) Compile a list of all the managers that might be involved in running a school. 1.4 The generic functions of the three levels of management Management can be divided into three levels: Top-level managers are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organisation. Middle-level managers are responsible for executing organisational plans that comply with company policies. These managers act as an intermediary between top-level management and low-level management. Low-level managers focus on controlling and directing. They serve as role models for the employees they supervise. Top Manager Set objectives Scab environment Plan and make decision Middle Manager Report to top manager Oversee first-line managers Develop and implement activities Allocate resources Lower level Manager. Report to middle manangers Supervise employees Coordinate Activities Involved in day to day operations Fig 1.4.1 The three levels of management 23 1.4.1 Top level management This consists of the board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top management is the final authority and it manages the goals and policies of a business or organisation. It devotes more time to planning and coordinating functions. The role of the top management can be summarised as follows: Top management lays down the objectives and broad policies of the business/organisation It issues necessary instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules etc. It prepares strategic plans and policies for the business/organisation It appoints the executive for middle level i.e. departmental managers It controls and coordinates the activities of all the departments It is also responsible for maintaining contact with the outside world It provides guidance and direction The top management is also responsible to the shareholders for the performance of the business/organisation. 1.4.2 Middle level management Branch managers and departmental managers make up the middle level. They are responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organisational and directional functions. In a small organisation, there may be only one layer of middle level management, but in big businesses/organisations, there may be senior and junior middle-level management. Their role can be summarised as: They execute the plans of the organisation following the policies and directives of the top management They make plans for the sub-units of the organisation They participate in the employment & training of lower-level management They interpret and explain policies from top-level management to lower level They are responsible for coordinating the activities within the division or department They also send important reports and other important data to top level management They evaluate performance of junior managers 24 They are also responsible for inspiring lower level managers towards better performance. 1.4.3 Lower level management Lower level is also known as the supervisory level of management. It consists of supervisors, foremen, section officers, superintendents etc. People in lower level management are concerned with direction and the controlling function of management. Their activities include: They assign jobs and tasks to various workers They guide and instruct workers on day to day activities They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relations in the organisation They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals etc. to the higher level and higher level goals and objectives to the workers They help to solve the grievances of the workers They supervise and guide the subordinates They are responsible for providing training to the workers They arrange the necessary materials, machines, tools etc., for getting things done They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers They ensure discipline in the business/organisation They motivate workers They are in direct contact with the workers. Learning activities 8 (20 minutes) 1. Explain what the term "levels of management" means. 2. List as many differences as you can between top level management and middle level management 25 1.5 What the generic management functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling involves in a school context According to van Deventer & Kruger (2013:74) the central focus of educational management is creating a culture of lifelong learning and teaching (COLTS) through value-driven education. This means that management tasks should focus on creating an environment where effective teaching and learning can occur. The most important elements of the management function in a school have been identified as: Giving direction to people Setting outcomes/identifying needs Allocating resources. These are achieved by using planning, organising, leading and controlling. 1.5.1 Planning According to Van der Westhuizen (1997:38), planning is one of the most important tasks of an educational leader. Within a school, planning is a four-step process that considers both the internal (school) and external environments (community, provincial and government departments). Changes in either of these may mean that plans need to be adapted or changed. The following diagram shows the planning process in a school. Step 1 Examine the present situation and determine the needs of the school. Step 2 Determine the future Influenced by the mission of situation and set a the Namibian Education mission, vision, aims Department.

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