Educational Psychology: A Contemporary Approach (2nd Edition) PDF

2nd Edition Educational Psychology A Contemporary Approach Gary D. Borich Martin L. Tombari Educational Psychology  Second Edition Educational Psychology A Contemporary Approach Ga...

2nd Edition Educational Psychology A Contemporary Approach Gary D. Borich Martin L. Tombari Educational Psychology  Second Edition Educational Psychology A Contemporary Approach Gary D. Borich The University of Texas at Austin Martin L. Tombari University of Denver LONGMAN An imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. New York Reading, Massachusetts Menlo Park, California Harlow, England Don Mills, Ontario Sydney Mexico City Madrid Amsterdam Editor in Chief: Priscilla McGeehon Acquisitions Editor: Virginia L. Blanford Developmental Editor: Elaine Silverstein Project Editor: Shuli Traub Supplements Editor: Donna Campion Text and Cover Designer: Rubina Yeh Art Studio: Dillon Design Group Photo Researcher: Michelle Ryan Production Manager: Alexandra Odulak Desktop Coordinator: Joanne Del Ben Manufacturing Manager: Hilda Koparanian Electronic Page Makeup: Americomp Printer and Binder: Quebecor/Hawkdns, Inc. Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Corp. Cover: Untitled, by Inge Abdulcair, age 9, Romania. Detail of “Portrait,” artist unknown, age 12, Japan. Courtesy of the International Children’s Art Museum. For permission to use copyrighted material, grateful acknowledgment is made to the copyright holders on pp. 603-605, which are hereby made part of this copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Borich, Gary D. Educational psychology: a contemporary approach / Gary D. Borich, Martin L. Tombari.— 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-673-98287-4 (student edition) ISBN 0-673-97740-4 (instructor’s edition) 1. Educational psychology. 2. Child development. 3. Learning. 4. Classroom management. 5. Educational tests and measurements. I. Tombari, Martin L. II. Title. LB1051.B4744 1996 96-15871 370. 15—dc20 CIP Copyright © 1997 by Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States. ISBN 0-673-98287-4 345678910—ARH—999897 Contents in Brief Contents in Detail vii Preface xxv Chapter 1: Introduction to Educational Psychology 2 Part I: What Teachers Need to Know About Development 22 Chapter 2: Cognitive Development 24 Chapter 3: Personal-Social Development: The Feeling Child 66 Part II: What Teachers Need to Know About Learning 100 Chapter 4: The Behavioral Science Approach to Learning 102 Chapter 5: Cognitive Learning I: Understanding Effective Thinking 134 Chapter 6: Making Learners Active Thinkers 172 Chapter 7: Motivation aid Classroom Learning 208 Part III: What Teachers Need to Know About Instruction and Classroom Management 240 Chapter 8: Group Process in the Classroom 242 Chapter 9: Positive Approaches to Conduct Management 276 Chapter 10: Instructional Management 314 Par*fc IV: What Teachers Need to Know About Assessment 352 Chapter 11: Assessing for Learning: Ability and Standardized Assessment 354 Chapter 12: Assessing for Learning: Objective and Essay Tests 390 Chapter 13: Assessing for Learning: Performance Assessment 424 Part V: What Teachers Need to Know About Learner Diversity 462 Chapter 14: Teaching Exceptional and At-Risk Learners 464 Chapter 15: Multicultural and Gender-Fair Instruction 500 Chapter 16: Family Systems and Home-School Partnerships 532 Appendix: Discussion and Practice Answers 563 Glossary 573 References 581 Credits 603 Name Index 607 Subject Index 615 Contents in Preface xxv Chapter Is jntrc|ducti®n to Educational Psycih©[fegy 2 Stages of Teacher Development 4 The Survival Stage 5 The Task Stage 5 The Impact Stage 6 Educational Psychology and Teacher Growth and Development 8 The Tasks of Educational Psychology 8 The Knowledge Base of Educational Psychology 12 Building a Knowledge Base 12 Asking Questions 12 Defining Variables 12 Formulating Hypotheses 14 Testing the Hypothesis 14 Qualitative Research 14 Descriptive Research 14 / Ethnographic Research 151 Case Studies 15 Quantitative Research 15 Correlational Studies 15 / Experimental Studies 16 Theory Building 16 A Process of Solving Classroom Problems 17 Observe Behavior 18 Understand Learner Characteristics 18 Reflect on Theories of Development, Learning, and Motivation 19 / Choose and Implement a Classroom Strategy 19 Evaluate Impact 19 Summing Up 19 For Discussion and Practice 20 Suggested Readings 20 Applying Your Knowledge: Teacher Concerns Checklist 10 Part I: What Teachers Need to Know About Development 22 Chapter Ss Cognitive Development 24 Portrait of Maricela 25 Basic Questions About Maricela’s Development 27 Contents in Detail Is There One Typical Road to Development or Are There Many Unique Paths? 28 Developmental Patterns 28 Individual Differences 29 Why This Question Is Important for Teachers 29 What Are the Major Influences on Learner Development? 32 The Nature/Nurture Question 32 Why This Question Is Important for Teachers 33 What Is the Best Way to Describe Developmental Change? 33 Why This Question Is Important for Teachers 35 Cognitive Development 37 Theory and Method of Jean Piaget 39 Schemata: Cognitive Structures for Thinking About the World 39 Behavioral (Sensorimotor) Schemata 40 Symbolic Schemata 41 Operational Schemata 41 How Schemata Are Constructed and Changed 41 Organization 41 Adaptation 41 Assimilation 42 Accommodation 42 Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development 43 The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years) 43 Current Research 43 The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years) 45 Current Research 47 The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) 48 Implications for Teachers 48 / Current Research 48 The Formal Operational Stage (12 Years and Older) 49 Current Research 50 Piaget's Legacy 52 Criticisms of Piaget's Theory 52 Gagne's Intellectual Skills Hierarchy 52 Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory 53 The Role of Culture and Social Relationships 53 / The Zone of Proximal Development 54 Neo-Piagetian Theory 56 Summary 56 Language Development 56 What Are Language and Language Development? 57 How a Child Develops Language Competence 58 Learning Theory 58 Nativist Theory 59 The Interactionist Perspective 59 How Teachers Can Promote Language Development 60 How Teachers Can Enhance Mediation 60 How Teachers Can Enhance Communication 60 How Teachers Can Enhance Self-regulation 61 Contents in Detail IX How Does Learning Two Languages Affect Cognitive Development? 61 Cognitive Development and Nonstandard English 63 Summing Up 63 For Discussion and Practice 64 Suggested Readings 65 Applying Your Knowledge: Teaching Concrete Operational Learners 50 Using Developmental Theories to Analyze Learning Problems 57 Teaching Question-Asking Skills 61 Chapter 3: Personal-Social Development: The Feeling Child 66 Three Theories of Personal-Social Development 69 The Biological Approach 70 Supporting Evidence 70 A Biological Analysis of Joe 70 The Social Learning Approach 71 Supporting Evidence 72 A Social Learning Analysis of Joe 72 The Psychoanalytic Approach 72 Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development 73 Stage 7: Infancy—Basic Trust Versus Mistrust 74 t Stage 2: Toddlerhood— Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt 74 / Stage 3: Early childhood— Initiative Versus Guilt 751 Stage 4: School Age—Industry Versus / Inferiority 75 / Stage 5: Adolescence—Identity Versus Role Confusion 75 / Stages 6-8: The Adult Stages 76 Supporting Evidence 76 A Psychoanalytic Analysis of Joe 76 A Synthesis of Theories of Personal-Social Development 76 A Comprehensive Developmental Perspective of Joe 78 Self-esteem 78 Self-concept and Self-esteem 79 The Development of Self-esteem 80 Physical Development and Self-esteem 83 Self-esteem and Academic Achievement 83 Social Relationships 84 Vertical Relationships 85 The Development of Vertical Relationships 87 Effects of Vertical Relationships on Your Learners 87 Horizontal Relationships 87 The Development of Horizontal Relationships 87 Effects of Horizontal Relationships on Your Learners 89 Social Cognition 90 Empathy 91 Social Relationships 91 Level 0: Egocentric Level (Early Childhood) 92 Contents in Detail Level 1: Reciprocal Trust (Later Childhood) 92 Level 2: Mutual Perspective Taking (Adolescence) 93 Moral Judgment and Reasoning 93 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development 94 Gilligan's Challenge to Kohlberg 94 Concluding Remarks About Social Cognition 96 Summing Up 98 For Discussion and Practice 98 Suggested Readings 99 Focus on Willard W. Hartup 86 Applying Your Knowledge: Steps to Promoting Self-esteem in Your Classroom 82 Encouraging Interpersonal Understanding 93 Part II: What Teachers Need to Know About Learning 100 Chapter 4: The Behavioral Science Approach to Learning 102 Overview of the Behavioral Science Approach 103 Classical Conditioning 104 Pavlov's Experiment 104 Relevance for Teachers 107 Operant Conditioning 107 How Operant Conditioning Works 108 Reinforcement 109 Schedules of Reinforcement 109 Punishment 109 Negative Reinforcement 110 Stimulus Control 111 Relevance of Operant Conditioning for Teachers 112 Using the Behavioral Science Approach 112 Focus on Learner Performance 112 Ensure the Learning of Prerequisite Skills 114 Task Analysis 115 Sequencing 115 Elicit Rapidly Paced, Correct Performance 117 Effective Presentation 118 Specific Directions 118/ Opportunities for Learner Response 118 / Pacing of Response Opportunities 118 Use of Prompts 119 Verbal Prompts 119 / Gestural Prompts 119 / Physical Prompts 119/Least- to-Most Prompting 120 Use Appropriate Consequences Following Performance 122 Informational Feedback: Correct Responses 121 Informational Feedback: Incorrect Answers 121 Contents in Detail XI Cautions for Correcting Mistakes 122 Positive Consequences Following Performance 123 The Expert Practice of Positive Reinforcement 123 The Process of Positive Reinforcement 124 Natural Reinforcers: Alternatives to Extrinsic Reinforcers 124 Conditioning a Natural Reinforcer 126 Positive Consequences: A Final Comment 126 The Use of Negative Consequences 127 Negative Consequences Versus Punishers 128 The Use of Punishment 129 Some Concluding Remarks 130 Summing Up 131 For Discussion and Practice 132 Suggested Readings 133 Applying Your Knowledge: Administering Positive Reinforcement 125 Conditioning a Natural Reinforcer 127 Chapter 5: Cognitive Learning I: Understanding Effective Thinking 134 The Cognitive Approach to the Study of Learning 137 Differences Between the Cognitive and Behavioral Approaches 138 The Content of Good Thinking 139 Cognitive Strategies 139 Strategies to Improve Memory 140 Strategies to Improve Reading Comprehension 142 Strategies for General Problem Solving 143 Summary 145 Metacognition 145 Development of Metacognition 145 Teaching Metacognition 146 Summary 146 Knowledge 147 The Effect of Knowledge on Learning 147 Types of Expert Knowledge 149 Characteristics of an Expert's Knowledge Base 150 Educational Implications 150 Concluding Comments 150 The Information Processing Model 151 Reception of Information 152 Working Memory 153 Why We Forget 154 Implications for Teaching 154 Long-Term Memory 155 The Form of Knowledge in LTM 155 Capacity of LTM 156 Retrieval Processes 157 Implications for Teaching 157 Contents in Detail The Parallel Distributed Processing Model 157 Teaching Implications 161 Cognitive Approaches to Learning and Intelligence 162 Views of Intelligence 162 Intelligence as Structure 162 Intelligence as Process 162 Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences 163 Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 163 Metacomponents of Intelligence 164 Performance Components 166 Knowledge-Acquisition Components 166 Some Final Thoughts on Cognitive Learning Theory 168 Summing Up 168 For Discussion and Practice 169 Suggested Readings 170 Focus on Robert J. Sternberg 167 Applying Your Knowledge: Teaching Memory Strategies 143 Using Reading Comprehension Strategies 144 Using the IDEAL Method 146 Teaching Metacognitive Knowledge 147 Grabbing and Holding Your Learners' Attention 153 Using the Information Processing Model to Promote Learning 159 Chapter 6: Making Learners Active Thinkers 172 Constructivism: Putting Learners in the Driver’s Seat 177 Organize Learning Around Important Ideas 179 Acknowledge the Importance of Prior Knowledge 180 Organizing Prior Knowledge 181 Recognizing Learner Opinions, Beliefs, and Ideas 181 Anticipating Misconceptions 181 Challenge the Adequacy of Prior Knowledge 183 Provide for Ambiguity and Uncertainty 183 Teach Learners How to Learn 184 View Learning as a Joint Cognitive Venture 186 Conceptual Growth 186 Social Support 187 Cognitive Modeling 187 Shared Expertise 187 Assess a Learner's Knowledge Acquisition During Lessons 187 Classroom Instruction that Promotes Good Thinking 187 Discovery Learning 188 Basic Features 189 An Example 191 Goals for Discovery Learning Lessons 191 Contents in Detail Cognitive Apprenticeship 191 Basic Features 192 Example: Reciprocal Teaching 194 Cooperative Learning 196 Basic Features 197 An Example 200 Establish Objectives 201 / Make Organizational Decisions 201/Prepare Materials 201 / Determine Individual Roles 2011 Select Procedures 201 / Conduct Evaluation 201 Direct Explanation Teaching 201 Basic Features 203 Up-front Demonstration and Explanation 203 / Mental Modeling of Authentic Problem Solving 203 / Guided Practice 203 / Metacognitive Information 203 An Example 204 Step 1: Introduce the Lesson 204 / Step 2: Introduce the Strategy 204 / Step 3: Mental Modeling 2041 Step 4: Provide Guided Practice 204 / Step 5: Teach Metacognitive Knowledge 204 Summary: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments 205 Summing Up 205 For Discussion and Practice 206 Suggested Readings 207 Applying Your Knowledge: Using Advance Organizers 182 Creating Conceptual Conflict 184 Teaching Good Writing 185 Teaching by the Discovery Method 192 Using Scaffolding 194 Employing Reciprocal Teaching 196 Using Reciprocal Teaching 198 Using Cooperative Learning Activities 199 Student Roles in Cooperative Learning 200 Teaching Collaborative Skills 202 Chapter 7: Motivation and Classroom Learning 208 Person-As-Machine: Biobehavioral Motivation Theories 210 Instinct Theory 212 Drive Theory 213 Deficiency/Growth Needs Theory 214 Summary 215 Person-As-Rational-Thinker: Cognitive Motivational Theories 215 Attribution Theory 215 Attributions and Motivated Behavior 217 Antecedents of Causal Attributions 219 Situational Cues 219 / Causal Schemata 219 / Self-perceptions 220 Teacher Influence on Attributions 220 Monitor Your Attributional Messages 221 / Focus on Learning Strategies 222 / Refrain from Grouping that Exclusively Promotes XIV Contents in Detail Ability 223 / Promote Cooperation over Competition 223 / Teach Realistic Goal Setting 223 Summary 224 Self-efficacy Theory 224 Antecedents of Self-efficacy Judgments 225 Past Experiences of Success or Failure 225 / Encouragement or Persuasion from the Teacher 225/ Physiological Cues 225 / Modeling Effects 225 Self-efficacy in the Classroom 225 Enhancing Self-efficacy 226 Goal Setting 226 / Information Processing 227 / Modeling 228 Summary 229 Self-determination Theory 229 Human Needs 229 Enhancing Self-determination 232 Summary 232 Project-based Learning 233 The Role of Tasks 234 Present a Challenge 235 Allow for Learner Choice and Control 235 Be Doable 235 Require Collaboration 235 Result in a Concrete Product 235 The Role of the Learner 236 The Role of the Teacher 236 Summary 236 Summing Up 237 For Discussion and Practice 237 Suggested Readings 239 Focus on Edward L. Deci 230 Applying Your Knowledge: Enhancing Self-efficacy 227 Promoting Self-determination 233 Part III: What Teachers Need to Know About Instruction and Classroom Management 240 Chapter 8: Group Process in the Classroom 242 Group Processes 244 What Is a Group? 244 Relationships 245 Common Goals 246 Social Structure 246 Summary 247 Effects of Groups on Their Members 249 Group Effects on Learner Achievement 249 Contents in Detail XV Group Effects on Motivation 249 Group Effects on Self-concept 250 Group Effects on Emotions 251 Summary 251 Group Formation: A Developmental Perspective 251 Stages of Group Development 252 Stage I: Forming 252 Stage II: Storming 253 Stage III: Norming 254 Stage IV: Performing 256 Summary 256 Leadership 256 Expert Power 257 Referent Power 257 Legitimate Power 258 Reward Power 259 Coercive Power 259 Expectations 259 Norms 262 What Are Norms? 263 Significance of Classroom Norms 263 How Norms Develop 264 How Teachers Can Influence Classroom Norms 265 Cohesiveness 266 How Cohesiveness Affects Academic Performance and Group Problem Solving 266 Promoting Group Cohesiveness 268 Problem^ Solving 269 Some Examples of Group Conflict 270 Conflicts Arising Out of Group Dynamics 270 Goal Conflicts 271 Interpersonal Conflicts 271 Procedural Conflicts 271 Summary: The Larger Context of Classroom Management 272 Summing Up 273 For Discussion and Practice 273 Suggested Readings 275 Focus on Richard Schmuck and Patricia Schmuck 248 Applying Your Knowledge: Fostering Group Development 254 Avoiding Expectancy Effects 262 Influencing Group Norms 266 Promoting Group Cohesiveness 269 Chapter 9: Positive Approaches to Conduct Management 276 Classroom Management Versus Classroom Control 280 Systems of Classroom Management 283 The Humanist Tradition in Classroom Management 285 XVI Contents in Detail Cooperation Through Congruent Communication 285 Express "Sane" Messages 285 Accept Rather than Deny Feelings 285 Avoid Using Labels 286 Use Praise Cautiously 286 Elicit Cooperation 286 Communicate Anger 286 Cooperative Learning 287 Applied Behavior Analysis in Classroom Management 288 Changing Behavior 288 Reinforcement 289 Negative Reinforcement 289 Intermittent Reinforcement 290 Antecedents 290 Using Applied Behavior Analysis to Improve Classroom Behavior 292 The Classroom Management Tradition 295 An Integrated Approach to Classroom Management 298 Setting Up the Classroom Workplace 299 Rules for Running the Workplace 304 Engaging Students in the Learning Process 304 Maintaining Work Engagement 305 Low-Profile Classroom Management 307 Anticipation 307 Deflection 308 Reaction 309 Dealing with Chronic Disruptive Behavior 310 Culturally Responsive Classroom Management 310 Summing Up 310 For Discussion and Practice 311 Suggested Readings 312 Focus on Edmund T. Emmer 298 Applying Your Knowledge: Using Natural Reinforcers 293 Employing Low-Profile Classroom Control 308 Chapter 10: Instructional Management 314 Introduction 316 Goals: Giving Instruction a Purpose 317 The Relevance of Educational Goals 318 Tyler's Goal Development Approach 319 From Educational Goals to Classroom Accomplishments 320 Objectives: Giving Goals a Direction 320 Gagne's Classification of Learning Outcomes 322 Bloom's Analysis of Learning Outcomes 324 Knowledge 325 Comprehension 327 Application 327 Contents in Detail XVII Analysis 327 Synthesis 328 Evaluation 328 Delivering Instruction 328 The Events of Instruction 330 The Expert Practice of Structuring 332 Focusing Attention 333 Psychophysical Appeal 333 / Emotional Appeal 333 / Discrepancy Appeal 334 / Commanding Stimuli Appeal 334 Holding Attention 334 The Expert Practice of Modeling 335 How One Learns from Models 335 Attention 335 / Retention 336 / Production 337 / Motivation 337 Guidelines for Effective Demonstrations 337 The Expert Practice of Coaching 338 Establishing Accountability 340 Providing Opportunities for Practice 341 Guiding Practice by Prompting and Questioning 343 Prompts 343 / Questions 343 / Interactive and Technology-driven Methods of Practice 344 Motivating Learners 345 The Expert Practice of Fading 347 Prompt Fading 347 Reinforcer Fading 347 Providing Independent Practice that Promotes Transfer 347 Summing Up 348 For Discussion and Practice 349 Suggested Readings 350 Focus on Madeline Hunter 332 Applying Your Knowledge: Writing Instructional Goals 318 Matching Instructional Approaches to Learning Outcomes 325 Conducting Effective Demonstrations 339 Establishing Accountability 340 Asking Questions during Guided Practice 344 Providing Practice Opportunities with Technology 346 Part IV: What Teachers Need to Know About Assessment 352 Chapter 11: Assessing for Learning: Ability and Standardized Assessment 354 Assessing Ability to Learn 356 What Is an Ability? 357 Assumptions of the Psychometric Approach 357 Developing Ability Tests: Initial Considerations 358 XVIII Contents in Detail Theories of Learning Ability 358 Method of Administration 359 Item Writing and Selection 360 Qualitative Item Analysis 360 Quantitative Item Analysis 360 Standardization and Norms 363 Types of Norms 365 The Normal Distribution 367 Reliability and Validity 368 The Correlation Coefficient 369 The Strength of r 3701 Direction 370 Correlation and Reliability 370 Correlation and Validity 370 The Relevance of Standardized Ability Tests 371 How Much Does School Learning Depend on Measured Ability? 371 Are Ability Tests Fair to Learners from Diverse Cultures and Ethnic Backgrounds? 372 Bias in Group Differences 372 Sample Bias 373 Examiner and Language Bias 373 Predictive Validity Bias 374 Bias in Test Use 374 Do Ability Tests Provide Information Useful for Instructional Decision Making? 375 Argument 1: Instructional Validity 375 Argument 2: Behavioral Definition 376 Argument 3: Sampling Specificity 377 Summary Comments About Present-Day Ability Tests 377 Alternative Ways of Assessing Learning Ability 378 Getting Along Without IQ Tests 379 Assessing Learning Ability: The Cognitive Approach 379 Memory Stores 379 Memory Processes 379 Executive Processes 379 Some Final Comments on the Assessment of Learning Ability 381 Learning Is a Process 381 Learning Ability Can Be Improved 381 Learning Occurs in a Social Context 381 Tracking: Grouping Learners by Ability 381 Advocates of Heterogeneous Grouping 381 Advocates of Homogeneous Grouping 382 Tracking: What the Research Says 383 How Representative Are the Tracked Groups? 383 Has Tracking Improved Overall School Achievement? 385 Has Tracking Narrowed or Widened the Achievement Gap Between High- and Low-Ability Learners? 385 Do High Achievers Benefit From Tracking? 385 Will Untracking Increase Overall School Achievement? 386 Summing Up 387 For Discussion and Practice 388 Suggested Readings 389 Contents in Detail XIX Applying Your Knowledge: Calculating the Index of Item Difficulty 363 Calculating the Index of Item Discrimination 364 Calculating the Standard Deviation 369 Twenty Ways to Increase Your Learners' Social IQ 373 How to Increase Your Learners' Memory and Processing Speed 380 Chapter 12: Assessing for Learning: Objective and Essay Tests 390 Classroom Evaluation Activities: An Overview 393 Fairness in Assessment 394 Validity in Assessment 395 Ensuring Content Validity 396 Building Content-Valid Restricted-Response Tests 397 The Test Blueprint 398 Matching Test Questions and Objectives 399 Summary 400 Choosing Test Item Formats: General Considerations 400 Objective Test Items 401 True-False Items 401 Matching Items 402 Homogeneity 402 Order of Lists 402 Easy Guessing 402 Pbor Directions 402 Multiple Correct Responses 402 Multiple-Choice Items 403 Stem Clue 404 Grammatical Clue 404. Redundant Words/Unequal Length 405 All of the Above/None of the Above 405 Higher-Level Multiple-Choice Questions 405 Use Justification to Assess Reasons Behind an Answer 406 Use Pictorial, Graphic, or Tabular Stimuli 406 Use Analogies to Show Relationships Between Terms 406 Require Application of Principles or Procedures 407 Completion Items 408 Advantages and Disadvantages of Objective-Item Formats 409 Restricted Response Essay Items 409 Using Restricted Essay Questions 410 Scoring Essays 412 Write Good Essay Items 412 Use Several Restricted-Response Items 413 Use a Predetermined Scoring Scheme 413 Some Unresolved Problems 414 Content Validity 414 Reliability Versus Validity 414 XX Contents in Detail Reporting Learner Progress: Your Grading System 415 The Purpose of a Grade 416 On What Should a Grade Be Based? 418 Making Public Your Decisions About Grading 420 Summing Up 421 For Discussion and Practice 421 Suggested Readings 423 Applying Your Knowledge: Matching Test Questions to Instructional Objectives 400 Writing True-False Questions 403 Writing Matching Items 404 Writing Multiple-Choice Items 408 Writing Restricted-Response Essay Questions 413 Improving the Reliability of Your Tests 415 Using Grading Formulas 420 Chapter 13: Assessing for Learning: Performance Assessment 424 Performance Testing 426 Performance Tests: Direct Measures of Competence 426 Performance Tests Can Assess Processes and Products 427 Performance Tests Can Be Embedded in Lessons 428 Performance Tests Can Assess Affective and Social Skills 429 Standardized Performance Tests 431 A Test Worth Studying For 433 A Test Worth Teaching To 433 Scoring the ESPET 434 Protecting Scoring Reliability 434 Community Accountability 435 What Research Suggests About Performance Tests 435 Do Performance Tests Measure Generalizable Thinking Skills? 436 Can Performance Tests Be Scored Reliably? 436 Summary 437 Developing Performance Tests for Your Learners 437 Deciding What to Test 438 Performance Objectives in the Cognitive Domain 438 Performance Objectives in the Affective and Social Domain 439 Designing the Assessment Context 441 Specifying the Scoring Rubrics 445 Developing Rubrics 446 Choosing a Scoring System 446 Checklists 446 / Rating Scales 447 / Holistic Scoring 450 / Combined Scoring Systems 450 / Comparing the Three Scoring Systems 451 Assigning Point Values 452 Specifying Testing Constraints 453 Portfolio Assessment 454 Performance Tests and Report Card Grades 456 Contents in Detail XXI Final Comments 457 Summing Up 457 Fop Discussion and Practice 459 Suggested Readings 460 Applying Your Knowledge: Designing a Performance Test 440 Identifying Attitudes for Performance Assessment 442 Designing a Performance Assessment: Math 444 Designing Performance Assessment: Communication 445 Designing Performance Assessment: History 446 Using a Combined Grading System 458 Part V: What Teachers Need to Know About Learner Diversity 462 Chapter 14: Teaching Exceptional and At-Risk Learners 464 The System of Special Education 467 The Regular Education Initiative (Inclusion) 467 A Brief History of Mainstreaming 468 Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 469 Major Components of PL 94-142 469 The Right to a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) 469 Nondiscriminatory Evaluation Procedures 469 Procedural Due Process 470 An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for Each Learner 470 Legislation Since PL 94-142 470 The Principle of Normalization 471 Regular School Participation 472 Regular Class Participation 473 Skill Enhancement 473 Image Enhancement 474 Autonomy and Empowerment 474 Special Class Versus Regular Class Placement 474 Understanding Exceptional Learners 475 How Should We Refer to Learners with Disabilities? 475 Students with Mental Retardation 475 The Definition of Mental Retardation 476 The Causes of Mental Retardation 476 Issues in the Educational Classification of Learners with Mental Retardation 476 Learning Needs of Students with Mental Retardation 479 Students with Learning Disabilities 480 Assessing Learning Disabilities 480 Standardized Achievement Tests 480 The Assessment Process 482 The IQ-Achievement Discrepancy 483 Summary 483 XXII Contents in Detail Students with Behavioral Disorders 484 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 485 Recognizing ADHD 487 Inability to Sustain Attention 487 Impulsivity 487 Hyperactivity 488 Deficits in Rule-governed Behavior 488 Prevalence and Risk Potential for ADHD 488 Students with Communication Disabilities 489 Speech Disabilities 490 Language Disabilities 490 Visual and Hearing Disabilities 490 Guidelines for Better Special Education 491 Gifted and Talented Learners 492 Defining Giftedness 492 Intelligence 493 Achievement 494 Creativity 494 Task Persistence 495 Present Trends in Gifted Education 496 Instructional Strategies for Gifted and Talented Learners 497 Summing Up 497 For Discussion and Practice 498 Suggested Readings 499 Focus on Anne M. Donnellan 478 Applying Your Knowledge: Meeting the Learning Needs of Students with Mental Retardation 481 Teaching Learners with ADHD 489 Teaching the Gifted and Talented Learner 497 Chapter IS: Multicultural and Gender-Fair Instruction 500 Introduction 502 Cultural Differences and Schooling 503 Minority Learners and Teachers 504 Minority Learners and Textbooks 504 Minority Learners and the Language of the Classroom 505 Minority Learners and Tracking 505 Minority Learners and School Achievement 506 Cultural Compatibility and Minority Learner Achievement 508 Education and Schooling 509 Social Organization 510 Sociolinguistics 510 Wait-Time 510 Rhythm 512 Participation Structure 512 Learning Styles 512 Contents in Detail XXIII Cognitive Styles 515 Field-Dependence Versus Field-Independence 515 Educational Implications 516 Cognitive Style and Culture 517 Summary and Conclusions 518 Beware of Perpetuating Stereotypes 519 Focus on Within-Group Differences 519 Focus on "Expert Practice" 519 Culturally Responsive Teaching 519 Culture and Teaching: What Teachers Need to Know and Understand 521 Gender Differences and Schooling 522 How Schools Perpetuate Sex-Role Stereotypes 525 Curriculum Bias 526 Academic Differentiation 526 Classroom Management Practices 527 School Staffing Patterns 528 Promoting Gender-Fair Schooling 528 Summing Up 528 For Discussion and Practice 530 Suggested Readings 531 Focus on Carl A. Grant 507 Applying Your Knowledge: Matching Teaching Strategies with Learners' Cognitive Styles 518 Integrating Cultural Knowledge with Subject Matter Expertise 523 Deteding Gender-Specific Curriculum Bias 527 Promoting Gender-Fair Instruction 529 Chapter 16: Family Systems and Home-School Partnerships 532 Introduction 534 A Systems-Ecological Perspective 535 Extent of Family-School Linkages 539 Effects of Family-School Linkages 539 Academic Effects on Learners 540 Other Positive Effects 540 Effects on Parents and Teachers 541 Barriers to Family-School Linkages 541 Different Priorities 542 A Tradition of Separation 542 A Tradition of Blame 543 Changing Demographics 543 Building Home-School Linkages 546 Principles of Family-School Partnerships 547 View the Family from a Systems-Ecological Perspective 547 Acknowledge the Changes in the American Family 547 View Parent Participation from an "Empowerment Model" 548 XXIV Contents in Detail Recognize the Unique Needs of Mothers and Fathers 548 Understand the Variety of Possible School-Family Linkages 548 The Parent Conference 548 Planning 549 Goals 550 Agenda 550 Materials 551 Setting 551 Conducting the Parent Conference 551 Plain Talk 552 Listening 552 Use "I" Messages 553 Evaluating the Parent Conference 553 Other Parent Involvement Techniques 553 The Group Conference 553 Written Communications 554 Telephone Calls 554 Teaching Skills Classes 556 Homework 556 Language Classes 558 Summary 558 Summing Up 559 For Discussion and Practice 560 Suggested Readings 561 Focus on Concha Delgado-Gaitan 544 Applying Your Knowledge: Planning Family-School Linkages 549 Planning a Parent Conference 551 Recording Telephone Contacts 557 Involving Parents in Homework 558 Appendix: Discussion and Practice Answers 563 Glossary 573 References 581 Credits 603 Name Index 607 Subject Index 615 Preface What Teachers PJeed t® Know About Educational Psychology for the Twenty-First Century I n the preface to the first edition of Educational Psychology: A Contemporary Ap¬ proach, we identified some of the many changes that were occurring or were about to occur in schools and classrooms that would affect our everyday lives. During the prepara¬ tion of this second edition these changes have become even more inevitable and their im¬ pact even more dramatic. Schools, now more than ever, must prepare learners for a high-tech world with which their teachers and parents have generally had little experience. Learners are not only be¬ coming more diverse than at any time in our nation’s history, they must live and prosper in a world in which values and ideas evolve rapidly. To adapt learners to live in this world of rapid change, our educational goals, teaching techniques, and assessment procedures must reflect the diversity of today’s world. There is little doubt among educators, employers, and parents that the primary arena in which learners will be prepared to meet rapid change in the future is the classroom of today. By virtue of its unique concern for and methods of studying human learning and de¬ velopment in educational settings, educational psychology will play an ever-increasing role in preparing learners for these new challenges and opportunities. Along with schools themselves, the field of educational psychology continues to un¬ dergo rapid change. There has been a gradual updating and more focused use of indi¬ vidualistic and behavioral approaches to classroom learning. And most recently, cognitive and constructivist theories of learning have emerged, along with theories of how learning is affected by the social context of the classroom. Increasingly, the traditional view of the teacher-as-technician, focusing exclusively on the individual learner, is being replaced by an emphasis on the teacher as a member of a team that includes educational specialists, other teachers, parents, and the entire commu¬ nity of which the learner is a part. Also underlying these new approaches to learning is a greater understanding of the roles played by culture, ethnicity, and gender. The most re¬ cent advances in cognitive and constructivist explanations of learning, the effects of culture and gender on learning, and research into the classroom as a social setting have been placed center stage in this second edition. Along with these new directions in classroom learning, there is heightened interest in a variety of assessment strategies to measure learner achievement. Standardized tests are receiving increased scrutiny, while the rapidly advancing field of performance assessment is experiencing greatly increased research and development as a complementary approach to more traditional forms of assessment. These new assessment strategies and their rela¬ tionship to cognitive and constructivist strategies of learning represent another focus of this second edition. XXV Educational psychologists have learned much in recent years about the science of in- XXVI Preface stmction—in particular, about the role teachers, teaching practices, and learners play in constructing a classroom environment in which every learner experiences success. For a time, the teaching of educational psychology was dominated by the presentation of the¬ ory first and application second. In other words, formal principles of psychology took precedence over their application in the classroom. From research on teaching effec¬ tiveness, however, we now know that the picture is not that simple. Classrooms are enormously complex settings. The new teacher who lacks an understanding of the social forces that come into play when a group of learners comes together cannot be expected to apply theories and principles learned in the context of formal university coursework. Teacher educators have come to appreciate the role of “case knowledge”—knowledge based on the experiences of practicing teachers that conveys the wisdom of the class¬ room through the eyes and ears of teachers who have been there. This text was written to reflect these and other recent changes in what teachers need to know in order to teach effectively. Our text is organized into five parts that cover the broad topics of development, learning, assessment, lesson and classroom man¬ agement, and learner diversity. The title to each unit begins with the phrase What teachers need to know about... —not only to reflect the wealth of knowledge educa¬ tional psychology has discovered about human learning, but to prioritize that knowledge and present it in the way that is most relevant to classroom learning. Thus, throughout this text we focus on how learning takes place in real classrooms. Because we know that teachers tend to organize their knowledge of teaching in ac¬ cord with their own experiences—or cases—rather than along theoretical fines, we have integrated theory and application throughout the chapters. In addition, this edition in¬ cludes a special feature, Applying Your Knowledge boxes, in which we highlight practi¬ cal teaching tips that are commonly known to experienced teachers but may be unknown to the beginning teacher. As in our first edition, every unit and chapter begins with a dialogue, case study, or vignette that places the information contained in the unit or chapter into a real-world context. We then weave this case knowledge throughout each chapter, building on it and enriching it with information and ideas grounded in classroom practice. Organization of This Book Our chapters contain much practical information not traditionally elaborated in other texts. The first part, “What Teachers Need to Know About Development,” focuses on the importance to teachers of a developmental perspective on learning and on learning problems. In contrast to some approaches to devel¬ opment, which draw specific classroom applications solely from theories of cognitive and affective development, we present developmental principles from the perspective of realistic case examples. Similarly, we return to this same approach in each of our other chapters. The second part, “What Teachers Need to Know About Learning,” pre¬ sents the behavioral and cognitive perspectives on learning. Our discussion of behavioral learning theory and techniques emphasizes practical ways in which teachers can help learners acquire basic skills. This is followed by two new chapters in which we focus exclusively on classroom applications of cognitive and constructivist learning strategies. The first chapter in this se- Preface xxvii quence presents major advances in cognitive psychology, with particular emphasis on the important skills of problem solving, critical thinking, and reasoning, while the second addresses the practical implementation of con¬ structivist strategies of teaching derived from the cognitive tradition. Our fourth and final chapter in this unit relates the preceding theories and con¬ structivist concepts to the important role of human emotion and motivation in learning. In the third part, “What Teachers Need to Know About Instruction and Classroom Management,” we show how knowledge of group dynam¬ ics, positive approaches to classroom conduct, and instructional manage¬ ment are all essential components of effective teaching. Chapter 8 presents important principles derived from social psychology regarding classroom groups. Chapter 9 shows teachers how to use techniques of conduct man¬ agement that focus on prevention and redirection rather than reaction and punishment. Chapter 10 presents important knowledge on lesson planning and instruction to guide new teachers through those difficult early weeks and months. Our fourth part, “What Teachers Need to Know About Assessment,” focuses on learner performance in a variety of contexts. We center our dis¬ cussion around a model of assessment that involves both standardized and teacher-made tests. We have devoted two chapters to the latter topic—one chapter on traditional teacher-made paper-and-pencil tests, plus a unique chapter that shows teachers how to construct and grade performance assess¬ ments, including student portfolios. This chapter goes hand in hand with two earlier chapters on cognitive and constructivist approaches to provide teachers/with the skills they need to cany out authentic and ongoing assess¬ ment in their classrooms. Our final part, “What Teachers Need to Know About Learner Diver¬ sity,” prepares the reader to meet the opportunities and challenges of di¬ versity. This section presents recent research about specific learning characteristics of exceptional and at-risk learners (Chapter 14) and cultur¬ ally and ethnically diverse learners (Chapter 15). We end the book with an up-to-date look at the important topic of home-school partnerships. In this chapter, we show teachers how to promote family and parent participation in the work of the classroom. Special Content Some highlights of the content included in this second edition text are these: A unique, up-to-date, two-chapter sequence on cognitive and constructivist strategies of teaching and learning. Chapter 5 covers cognitive approaches to learning, while Chapter 6 demonstrates the implementation of construc¬ tivist strategies in the classroom. These chapters comprise a current, well- integrated, practical summary of the most important research in this vital, emerging area—the two chapters alone include over 100 new references. A chapter on the social psychology and social dynamics of classroom groups and their effects on both classroom climate and learner achievement. This unique chapter underscores the importance of and shows teachers how XXVIII Preface to implement current trends in cooperative learning and other social- constructivist teaching methods. Two chapters devoted to the psychological principles that provide the foun¬ dation for positive approaches and techniques for managing the classroom. Three chapters on assessment—one devoted to standardized assessment and its classroom implications, another to teacher-made paper-and-pencil tests, and a third to the theory, construction, and practice of performance assessment. A chapter on the rapidly occurring changes in teaching the exceptional and at-risk child, including the gifted and talented, with updated research and practice on the Regular Education Initiative (REI) and the concept of nor¬ malization. Two chapters devoted to teaching diverse learners, with particular emphasis on culture, gender, and ethnicity (Chapter 15) and on including the family and community as partners in the work of the classroom (Chapter 16). Pedagogical Features Our text includes the following special features, all designed to draw the student imme¬ diately into the learning process and to make theory relevant by demonstrating practical classroom methods: Applying Your Knowledge boxes, which are new to this edition, highlight important strategies the classroom teacher can use to apply theoretical knowledge in the classroom. There are over 40 of these boxes in this second edition, and topics range from teaching reading comprehension strategies (Chapter 5), to promoting positive group norms (Chapter 8), to using “nat¬ ural reinforcers” to reward learner behavior (Chapter 9), to involving par¬ ents in their children’s homework assignments (Chapter 16). All are practical, research-based, and sure to provide valuable hands-on support to the beginning teacher. Chapter-opening dialogues and examples illustrate the application of principles and concepts to the real world of the classroom through the eyes and ears of practicing teachers. Case studies and vignettes interspersed throughout each chapter further extend and ground important principles and concepts to specific classroom contexts. Classroom application questions at the beginning of each chapter help students structure and organize their thinking about the contents of the chapter. Each question is repeated in the margin of the chapter, where its answer and further applications can be found. “Focus on” boxes highlight the work of contemporary educational psycholo¬ gists. In our Focus boxes, leading researchers speak to the student directly: They describe their current work, tell how they became interested in the top¬ ics they study, and explain how their work benefits classroom teachers. These boxes show students how research is vitally important to their classroom lives. Among the scholars covered in this edition are Robert Sternberg of Yale (Chapter 5), Carl Grant of the University of Wisconsin (Chapter 15), and Concha Delgado-Gaitan of University of Cafifomia-Davis (Chapter 16). Preface XXIX Chapter-opening vocabulary lists, together with the application ques¬ tions, serve as practical advance organizers for students as they begin study¬ ing each chapter. “Summing Up,” the end-of-chapter summaries, restate key concepts in an easy-to-follow outline format. “For Discussion and Practice” questions provide students with the op¬ portunity to review what they have learned. Answers are provided in the Ap¬ pendix. Annotated suggested readings at the end of each chapter highlight or ex¬ pand major concepts within the chapter. Supplements A full range of supplemental materials has been designed to support instructors’ and students’ classroom needs. These include: Instructor’s Edition offers a version of the text that incorporates addi¬ tional resources for the convenience of the instructor. The bound-in instruc¬ tor’s section provides chapter overviews, outlines, key terms and concepts, exercises, and lecture discussion topics keyed to each chapter. These re¬ sources can also be found in the Instructor’s Manual. Instructor’s Manual, written by DeWayne Mason, University of Califomia- Riverside, provides chapter overviews; intended outcomes regarding infor¬ mation and concepts that prospective teachers should master with each chapter; a comprehensive course outline; key terms and concepts; ideas for teaching, including exercises and lecture/discussion ideas, techniques to in¬ troduce activities; in-class applications, follow-up activities, and other peda¬ gogical strategies; and supplemental resources, including transparency masters, case studies, and questions for quizzes. Test Bank, written by DeAnne French of the University of Texas at Austin, provides an extensive collection of questions (multiple-choice, short answer, and essay); also available in two different software programs—TestMaster (IBM and Mac) and QuizMaster appear on the same disk—that allow in¬ structors to customize their examinations. Transparencies feature over 100 key figures, charts, and graphs from the text, as well as other sources. Student Study Guide, written by Deborah Brown of West Chester Uni¬ versity, provides exercises keyed to learning objectives for each chapter of the text; practice tests to help students evaluate their progress; learning strategies to help students remember important concepts; case studies that present current debates in educational psychology; and field experience questions that help students to apply educational psychology theory to the practice of teaching. Electronic Portfolio, student version, created by Harry Noden of the Hudson, Ohio, school system, encourages extensive interaction with the text, experimental applications of theories in the classroom, and self-review of student progress through written responses recorded in an interactive computerized portfolio. (This is available in either Macintosh Microsoft XXX Preface Word or Microsoft Works, or IBM WordPerfect. There is also a web page version.) Electronic Portfolio, faculty version, by Harry Noden provides a range of computer network options. Educational Psychology Video provides text-specific examples of class¬ room interactions, drawn from the following topics: “First Day of Class,” “Small Group Instruction,” “Classroom Behavior Management,” “Working With a Discouraged Learner,” and “Parent/Teacher Conference.” Each is tied directly to chapter content and the learning exercises within them. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the following reviewers for providing excellent suggestions during the development of the first edition of this text: Jeanne Amlund, Penn State Uni¬ versity; Dave Bass, Valley City State University; Douglas A. Beed, University of Mon¬ tana; Brenna E. Beedle, Eastern Washington University; Karen K. Block, University of Pittsburgh; Deborah S. Brown, West Chester University; Gail C. Delicio, Clemson Uni¬ versity; Peter R. Denner, Idaho State University; Peggy Dettmer, Kansas State Univer¬ sity; J. Linward Doak, Eastern Kentucky University; Harold J. Fletcher, Florida State University; Marlynn M. Griffin, Georgia Southern University; Robert Hohn, University of Kansas; Philip Langer, University of Colorado; Pamela Loughon, University of North Carolina; Lee J. Messinger, Temple University; Douglas J. Stanwyck, Georgia State University; Charles E. Syester, Western Illinois University; Carol Takacs, Cleveland State University; Dennis Thompson, Georgia State University; Joan S. Timm, Univer¬ sity of Wisconsin; Peggy Vogelson, Chestnut Hill College; Carol Walker, Catholic Uni¬ versity of America; James M. Webb, Kent State University; Jane A. Wolfle, Bowling Green State University. In addition, the following reviewers provided excellent feedback during this prepa¬ ration of the second edition: Dianne Albright, Central Missouri State University; Kay Alderman, University of Akron; Joyce M. Alexander, Indiana University; William M. Bart, University of Minnesota; Dave Bass, Valley City State University; Gary Bonczak, Sir Sandford Fleming College, Peterborough, Ontario; Roger L. Briscoe, Indiana Uni¬ versity of Pennsylvania; Mary Ann Capan, Western Illinois University; Diana L. Cham¬ berlain, The University of Texas at Brownsville; Bill Fisk, Clemson University; Hal Fletcher, Florida State University; Marlynn M. Griffin, Georgia Soudiem University; Hope Hartman, City College-CUNY; Sharon Lee Hiett, University of Central Florida; William Lloyd McCraney, Towson State University; Anastasia S. Morrone, University of Delaware; Elizabeth Pemberton, University of Delaware; Peggy Perkins, University of Nevada at Las Vegas; Mary Ann Rafoth, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Lawrence R. Roglen, Boise State University; Harry W. Robinson, Muskegon Community College; Christopher Skinner, Mississippi State University; Korinne Tande, Montana State University-Northern; James Webb, Kent State University; Barbara Yunker, Jacksonville State University. Gary D. Borich Martin L. Tombari mwmm Chapter Introduction to Educational Psychology  This chapter will help you answer the following questions about yourself and your learners: What stages of development can I expect to pass through during my first year of teaching? How can the study of educational psychology help me develop into an expert teacher? How can I evaluate the knowledge acquired through the study of educational psychology and decide whether to apply it in my teaching? How can I use the knowledge base of educational psychology to solve specific classroom problems? m arisa Washington is a first-year language arts teacher at Fawkes Middle School. It is February, and on this particular day she is participating in an In this chapter you will also learn the after-school seminar on teaching writing. Dr. Cornell Gates, a former professor of meanings of these Marisa, is presenting the seminar. During the break, Marisa goes up to Dr. Gates and introduces herself. terms: case study Marisa: Dr. Gates, I'm Marisa Washington. I took your class on writing about a concerns theory year ago. Do you remember me? control group Dr. Gates: Of course. You always sat in the last row on the left side of the room. correlational study You know what they say about students who sit in the back! dependent variable Marisa: Yeah. I think the same thing about some of my students. descriptive research Dr. Gates: This must be your first year teaching. How's it going? educational psychology Marisa: It's just like you said in class... the first few months are a matter of sur¬ ethnography vival. Well, I think I'm past that stage now. Had you presented these ideas about experimental group writing last October, I probably would have been too overwhelmed to listen. Now I experimental study can see whepe I can use them. generalizability Dr. Gates: So, you're at the point where your concerns are changing: focusing hypothesis less on yourself and more on how to teach? impact stage Marisa: That's it. I finally feel that I can plan my lessons with a focus on my pre¬ independent variable sentation skills and the content. Before, every lesson plan ended with my asking, operational definition "Now, what behavior problems might this create?" qualitative research Dr. Gates: And now you ask whether the lesson will get your point across? quantitative research Marisa: Yes. Before, the things you were talking about today would have just randomization made me worry about classroom control. Now, I'm thinking about whether they'll survival stage help me teach better. task stage Dr. Gates: Sounds like you're past the survival stage and beginning to focus on variables your teaching skills. Marisa: I would never have said this in the fall, but I think I'm beginning to see the light at the end of the tunnel. There is a common perception that with certification comes expertise in teaching. But it will take time for you to develop patterns of practice that will enable you to confi¬ dently and effortlessly develop and carry out effective lesson plans. As a beginning teacher you will be a developing professional, as Marisa has come to realize and as Dr. Gates has taught. Chapter 1 Introduction to Educational Psychology How does a beginning teacher develop into a mature, confident, and competent professional? What conditions must you experience? What knowledge must you ac¬ quire? What skills must you develop? Educators and educational psychologists have studied the developmental process of becoming a teacher and have found that it unfolds in some predictable ways. In this chapter, we will discuss the stages of development that all teachers go through on the way to becoming expert practitioners. Then we will ex¬ plore the knowledge base of educational psychology, the subject of this book, and how it can help you in your classroom. Stages of Teacher Development At this point in your training, you probably see yourself in the role of a teacher, and you may have constructed some images or pictures of your first class. You may have promised yourself that you are going to be better than some of the teachers who taught you when you were in elementary or high school. You probably hope to be as good as some other teachers you have known. But as you begin your first regular teaching as¬ signment you will find that there is a difference between your student teaching experi¬ ence and the “real world of teaching.” First, the classrooms you have been in came with a made-to-order instructional and behavior management system. All you had to do was adjust to it. Soon, no such system will exist, and you will have to create one of your own. Second, during student teaching you have had instructional materials and lessons to draw on as aids to help you plan and teach. This may not be the case when you start your first teaching assignment. You will have to make many decisions about what, for how long, and in what manner to teach a group of learners you know little about. Finally, your cooperating teacher has been an important advisor and confidante during your student teaching experience, someone you could approach for advice on Student teachers can quickly move from concerns about self and self-survival to concerns about student achievement and learning. Chapter 1 Introduction to Educational Psychology 5 how to teach particular learners or how to cope with the psychological and physical de¬ What stages of development mands of teaching. It is possible that such a mentor may not exist in your first regular can I expect to pass through teaching assignment. during my first year of teaching? The Survival Stage This transition to the real world of teaching ushers in the first stage of teacher develop¬ ment, sometimes called the survival stage (Borich, 1993; Burden, 1986; Fuller, 1969; Survival stage. The first stage of Ryan, 1992). The distinguishing feature of the survival stage of teaching is that your con¬ teaching during which beginning cerns will focus on your own well-being more than on the teaching task or your learners. teachers focus primarily on their own well-being rather than on their Bullough (1989) has described this stage as “the fight for one’s professional life" (p. 16). learners or the process of teaching. During this stage, you will typically have the following concerns: Will my learners like me? Will they listen to what I say? What will parents and teachers think of me? Will I do well when the principal observes me? V'’ Will I ever have time to myself? s*' Typically, during this time you become so focused on behavior management con¬ 60^rv. the psychoanalytic tradition. As Bee’s model of personality formation suggests, tempera¬ y,^ ' /c^ ment and social learning processes also are at work. The more important question is this: What are the long-term effects of the vertical relationship schema? Effects of Vertical Relationships on Your Learners. Table 3.2 summarizes current knowledge about the long-term effects of affectional bonds and secure attach¬ ments (Bee, 1995). It summarizes the results of numerous studies of preschool and ele¬ mentary school children who were rated as securely or insecurely attached to their mothers as infants. The available evidence lends strong support to the hypothesis that early attachments exert a strong influence on learners’ ability to form later successful re¬ lationships with their teachers. Although results such as those in Table 3.2 suggest less desirable outcomes for poorly attached infants, this is not necessarily the case. As we will see in Chapters 4 through 6, on learning, the affective as well as the cognitive dimensions of learners are flexible. Just as schemata or models are constructed out of early childhood experiences, so can they be altered by later ones. Horizontal Relationships Most theories of affective development assign a central role to vertical relationships, particularly the social learning and psychoanalytic approaches. But that emphasis may be changing. Just as we are beginning to appreciate the role of social relationships in cognitive development, thanks to theorists such as Vygotsky (see Chapter 2), the unique effects of peer relationships in affective development are beginning to be appreciated as well. Psychologists who study the developmental significance of peer relationships are particularly interested in what happens to children between the ages of 3, when they are still completely dependent on adults, and later adolescence, when they are almost com¬ pletely independent of them. From the work of researchers such as Willard Hartup, it i? now clear that children learn cooperation, healthy competition, and the ability to estab¬ lish intimacy with others not only through vertical relationships but through horizontal ones as well (Hartup, 1989). The Development of Horizontal Relationships. Horizontal relationships first appear at about the age of 3. Although infants as young as 6 months show positive inter- 88 Part I What Teachers Need to Know/About Development Table 3.2 Characteristics Shown by Securely Attached Infants at Later Ages Sociability. Securely attached infants get along better with their peers, are more popular, and have more friends. With strange adults they are more sociable and less fearful. Self-esteem. They have higher self-esteem. Relationship with siblings. They have better relationships with siblings, especially if both siblings are securely attached; if both are insecurely attached, the relationship is maximally antagonistic. Dependency. They show less clinging and attention-seeking from a teacher and less "negative seeking" (getting attention by being bad) in preschool years. Tantrums and aggressive behavior. They show less aggressive or disruptive behavior. Compliance and good deportment. They are easier to manage in the classroom, requiring little overt control by the teacher, but they are not overly docile. Empathy. They show more empathy toward other children and toward adults. They do not show pleasure on seeing others' distress, which is fairly common among avoidant children. Behavior problems. The results are mixed, but there are a number of studies that show that securely attached infants are less likely to show behavior problems at later ages. Problem solving. They show longer attention spans in free play and more confidence in attempting solutions to tasks with tools. They use the mother or teacher more effectively as a source of assistance. Source: The Developing Child, 6th ed. (p. 443), by H. Bee. New York: HarperCollins. Copyright © 1992, Harper- Collins College Publishers. Reprinted by permission. ests in other infants, and toddlers are often found playing with one another, they begin to express a true preference for peer companionship only during early childhood. Thus, the foundation for successful peer relationships in elementary school is laid during the preschool years. During this time, children learn to play for longer periods of time with one another, pay attention to rules of equity and fairness, and look for oppor¬ tunities to do things together rather than apart. Out of these experiences develops a schema that includes rudimentary expectations of loyalty and commitment to friends and a sense of mutual attachment and common interest (Hartup, 1989). Children who enter school with such a friendship schema are more likely to benefit from your efforts to build trusting peer relations than those who don’t. During the elementary school years we want this friendship schema to accommo¬ date such notions as the importance of finding cooperative solutions during competi¬ tion, a desire for low-profile modes of conflict resolution, and a forgive-and-forget approach to fights rather than the holding of grudges. Hartup (1989) emphasizes that your learners will develop these friendship-building skills primarily out of the opportu¬ nities you provide for mutual play, learning, and problem solving. Chapter 3 Personal-Social Development: The Feeling Child 89 Researchers are just beginning to appreciate the importance of friendly peer relationships in learners' overall emotional development. Eisenberg (1988, 1990) emphasizes that horizontal relationships not only help chil¬ dren learn how to make friends but also help them develop a set of prosocial behaviors. Prosocial behaviors are intentional, voluntary behaviors intended to help another per¬ Prosocial behaviors. Intentional, son. We commonly refer to them as altruistic behaviors. Children who express sympa¬ voluntary behaviors intended to help others. thy, share a candy bar, help someone clean up a mess, or get a friend to class on time are showing prosocial behaviors. Prosocial behaviors develop primarily out of experiences with horizontal rather than vertical relationships. ^_ As learners enter adolescence and move on to junior and senior high school, they may add the following elements to their1 friendship schema: (1) a willingness to share feelings and secrets with others, (2) knowledge about the feelings of others, (3) a com¬ mitment to loyalty and faithfulness, (4) an attraction toward the opposite sex, and (5) a concern for the norms and expectations of the peer group. Although conventional wis¬ dom and the media seem to suggest that dependence on the peer group is a negative force, in most cases it is a positive one. Adolescence is the period when your learners make the necessary transition from dependence on adults to independence as young adults. Erikson and other developmental psychologists view the peer group as a neces¬ sary vehicle for safe passage during this period. So, rather than being abnormal, the in¬ tense need of teenagers for conformity may be a normal and necessary part of the process of developing personal identity and establishing intimacy with other people. Effects of Horizontal Relationships on Your Learners. As we have em¬ phasized, providing opportunities for learners to establish healthy relationships when they enter school helps them develop skills important in getting along with others, as¬ sisting others (altruism), and establishing intimacy. The failure to experience healthy horizontal relationships and to learn friendship-building attitudes, beliefs, intentions, and skills can have undesirable consequences, as Rebecca, in the earlier vignette, clearly 90 Part I What Teachers Need to Know About Development described, and as the example of Joe demonstrated. This failure is often described by What role do friendships play the terms “unpopularity” and “social rejection.” in the personal-social development of my learners, Current evidence suggests that rejected children are more likely to be aggressive and how can I enhance friendly and disruptive in school (Hartup, 1989), experience intense feelings of loneliness (Cas¬ relationships? sidy & Asher, 1992), and suffer emotional disturbances in adolescence and adulthood (Dishon, Patterson, Stoolmiller, & Skinner, 1991). Nevertheless, educational psycholo¬ gists have also shown that, within limits, learners can be taught some of the social skills necessary to gain acceptance by peers (Tharinger & Lambert, 1990). More importantly, by helping your learners construct their own well-functioning horizontal relationships, you eliminate the need to teach them how to acquire these relationships. Social Cognition What do they value? A can of hairspray. Materialistic tilings a lot. And yet they really care a lot about the feelings of other people in class, too—sometimes; sometimes they’re really mean to each other, too. For example,... I had a girl come during the afternoon class who... said she was checking out. “I need to go home.” The other girl said, “Look at that (ugly) headband she’s got on.” I chewed her out... I was so mad at her. “Do you think every girl was born with a pretty face?” She said, “Well, why are you so mad?” I said, “Because that is so mean, you don’t care at all that you said that loud enough for her to hear.” Some just don’t have feelings that way. (Kerrie, seventh-grade teacher, quoted in Bullough, 1989, p. 119) Kerrie is probably like most teachers. She wants her learners to value the right things. She wants them to be sensitive to one another’s feelings. She becomes upset when they behave thoughtlessly and selfishly, and her reaction to her students’ insensi¬ tivity is typical of what many teachers do: she scolds, criticizes, and lectures. Some developmental and educational psychologists (Bee, 1995; Hartup, 1989; Kohlberg, 1978) suggest that goals for learners should go beyond mere academic achieve¬ ment and reflect a concern that learners develop moral values, consideration for the feel¬ ings of others, and a commitment to social justice. Most educators and parents seem to agree. Increasingly, professional associations for improving teaching and curriculum, such as the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), recommend Can learners be taught helping that schools develop programs to teach ethics, values, community responsibility, and citi¬ or prosocial behaviors? zenship (Parker, 1991). Developmental and educational psychologists have an expression for how children learn to think and become concerned about other people’s actions and feelings, and Social cognition. How one thinks how they think about what people ought to do: social cognition. When Kerrie ex¬ and becomes concerned about other pressed concern for what her learners value, and how insensitive some of them are to people's actions and feelings. the feelings of others, she was disturbed about their social cognition: what they know and think about people, relationships, and right and wrong (Bee, 1995). Can teachers like Kerrie have an impact on social cognition? At what age are learners ready to think and alter aspects of their social cognition? What is the relationship between a child’s ability to think about people and what they should and should not do and the ability to think and reason? Does changing how learners think about social and moral issues affect how they behave? We will end our study of personal-social development with a discussion of social cognition. We will review the three major areas of social coalition: empathy, from the perspective of Martin Hoffman (1982, 1984, 1988); understanding of relationships, Chapter 3 Personal-Social Development: The Feeling Child 9 through the ideas of Robert Selman (1980, 1989); and moral judgment and reasoning, from the research of Lawrence Kohlberg (1978) and Carol Gilligan (1982,]M8).TnacT dition, we will summarize what is currently known about the relationship between social cognition and social behavior. Empathy Whether you teach elementary, junior high, or senior high school, sooner or later you will say to one of your students, “How would you feel if someone did that to you?” In re¬ sponse to this question, some of your learners will greet you with blank stares, some will show puzzlement, and some will be thoroughly chastened. What you are asking of these learners is empathy, the ability to read someone else’s feelings and match them to Empathy. The ability to read one’s own. Empathy requires two processes: (1) determining another person’s emo¬ someone else's feelings and match them to the observer's own feelings tional state and (2) imagining how you would react to a similar emotional state. Empa¬ thy is largely a cognitive process, so when you ponder why some children show empathy and others do not, recall what was learned about cognitive development in the previous chapter. '> Hoffman believes that empathy develops in stages that roughly parallel the devel¬ opmental stages of Piaget. Table 3.3 summarizes the changes in children’s ability to em¬ pathize as they get older. These changes reflect a learner’s increasing ability to think abstractly, draw inferences, and make deductions about what he or she is observing. Hoffman’s research on the development and expression of empathy has several im¬ plications for teachers concerned with this aspect of their learners’ social cognition. First, a learner’s ability to recognize the emotional state of another and match it to his ot¬ her _own improves with age and experience. Early elementary school children, although able to recognize that a peer is experiencing distress, have difficulty relating this state to themselves^Second, failure to show empathy can be attributed to the child’s level of cognitive development and to lack of social experiences that promote this development, as well as to social class and cultural differences. Undoubtedly, certain cultures and eth¬ nic groups place different meanings on certain physical gestures and facial expressions. Moreover, different cultures place different values on the importance of interpreting the feelings of others as well as on disclosing one’s own emotions (Bowers & Flinders, 1990). Social Relationships “That’s no way to treat a friend!” “Friends don’t behave like that.” “That’s no way to make a friend!” “Come on! Let’s behave like friends.” If you’ve heard expressions like these, you’ve experienced a second aspect of social cognition, friendship. Social cognition involves not only empathy—our understanding of how individuals feel—but also how we think about relationships or friendships. This as¬ pect of social cognition concerns what children think about friends: what it means to have a friend, how to make and keep friends, and how friends should behave toward one another. 92 Part I What Teachers Need to Know About Development Table 3.3 Stages in the Development of Empathy Stage 1: Global empathy. Observed during the first year. If the infant is around someone expressing a strong emotion, he may match this emotion, such as beginning to cry when he hears another infant crying. Stage 2: Egocentric empathy. Beginning at about 12 to 18 months, when the child has a fairly clear sense of his separate self, children respond to another's distress with some distress of their own, but may attempt to "cure" the other person's problem by offering what they themselves would find most comforting. They may, for example, show sadness when they see another