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The second theme that binds these CHAPTER 5. Asian Ethical Traditions intellectual traditions is “love and compassion”. Since every system seeks to Terms...

The second theme that binds these CHAPTER 5. Asian Ethical Traditions intellectual traditions is “love and compassion”. Since every system seeks to Terms: realize human emancipation and fullness, a human fullness that is rooted in the 1. Chatvari-arya-satyani - It refers to the Four transcendence of suffering, finitude, Noble Truths. These truths are fundamental disorder, strife, and maybe even death, it teachings in Buddhism and provide a becomes important that people live with framework for understanding the nature of love and compassion. Compassion and suffering and the path to its cessation. love, they intuit, are paths to tranquility, peace, and being whole. 2. Dukkha - In Buddhism, it is a Pali term that refers to the first of the Four Noble Truths, The third theme is about the commonly translated as "suffering," "pain," connectedness of personal cultivation and or "unsatisfactoriness." social responsibility. Realizing one’s goodness is often tied to fulfilling one’s duty 3. Karma - In Buddhism, "Karma" (or "Kamma" to one’s family, one’s clan, and one’s in Pali) refers to the law of moral causation, government. which states that intentional actions have consequences that affect the doer in the The fourth theme is about enlightenment. future. This means an awakening to the order to which human beings align their existence. 4. 4. Atman - In Buddhism, the concept of "Atman" is generally not accepted. Atman is The last characteristics is that great a term from Hindu philosophy that refers to teachings offer paths of “harmony with the "self" or "soul"—an eternal, unchanging oneself, with others, with nature, with a essence that is considered the true self of an transcendent”. Because the fullness of individual. human becoming is central to all these traditions, they all have teachings related to 5. 5. Nirvana - In Buddhism, Nirvana (or the harmony of self will all beings, especially Nibbana in Pali) represents the ultimate goal the transcendent. For these traditions, the of the Buddhist path. It is the state of existing transcendent order is the very basis liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and of all forms of existence. rebirth and the cessation of suffering. THE VEDAS AND UPANISHADS 6. 6. Astangika-marga - In Buddhism, "Astangika-marga" refers to the Eightfold The Vedas are some of the oldest Path, which is a key aspect of the Fourth philosophical writings in the world. They are Noble Truth. The Eightfold Path is a guide considered the oldest scriptures of for ethical and mental development with the Hinduism and are composed in early goal of reaching enlightenment and Sanskrit. The word "Veda" means liberation from suffering. "knowledge" or "wisdom." Asian traditions share some general characteristics. Rita - is the right order of the universe. Manuel B. Dy identifies common themes which can Human beings experience this order be drawn from the great Asian spiritual and through the presence of the gods to whom intellectual traditions. they dedicate the performance of the hymns embodied in rituals. First theme, one can immediately notice that religious thought is intertwined with There are four Vedas, each consisting of philosophical and ethical thinking. There is four parts: no real separation of beliefs about the transcendent and the cosmos, including the 1. Rigveda: The oldest of the Vedas, the traditional mythical beliefs. Beliefs about Rigveda is a collection of hymns praising Dharma and Karma, the Dao and the gods, various deities. It includes chants and frame the critical understanding of the great praises to gods such as Agni (the fire god), Asian Philosophical traditions regarding the Indra (the king of gods), and Varuna (the good and the good life. Dy says that at the god of water). heart of all Asian philosophical thought is the quest for emancipation: “be it from 2. Samaveda: This Veda is primarily a moral degradation as in the case of collection of melodies and chants. It is Confucianism, from misery as it is in Taoism meant to be sung during rituals and and Buddhism, and from finitude as in the sacrifices, emphasizing the importance of case of Hinduism. sound and music in spiritual practices.  3. Yajurveda: The Yajurveda contains prose “beyond birth and death”, need to realize mantras and is divided into the White four truths called Chatvari-arya-satyani. (Shukla) and Black (Krishna) Yajurveda. It provides instructions for performing The Four Truths (Chatvari-arya-satyani) sacrificial rituals and ceremonies. 1. The first truth is that life is suffering or 4. Atharvaveda: This Veda includes hymns, dukkha. In the cycle of death, life, and spells, and incantations. It deals with rebirth, there is constant suffering. everyday life and issues such as health, longevity, and protection from evil. 2. The second truth is that action or karma is the cause of this suffering, particularly UPANISHADS “nonvirtuous action, and the negative mental states that motivate such actions”. The Upanishads mark a philosophical shift These are afflictions of the mind such as from ritualistic practices to seeking deeper desire, hatred, and ignorance, which are understanding and enlightenment about the rooted in the wrong valuation of self or universe and human existence. The Upanishads atman. The extreme valuing of the self, and focus on spiritual knowledge and enlightenment, the desire to preserve the I is the cause of exploring concepts such as the nature of reality, the suffering. self (Atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman). 3. The third truth is that there is an end to Key Concepts suffering and the path beyond suffering is to transcend this illusion and enter the state of ❖ Samsara (Reincarnation): Human beings nirvana. undergo repeated births in different forms, each life offering an opportunity for spiritual Nirvana – the dissolution of suffering through the purification and advancement. surrender of the ego. ❖ Karma: Actions and their consequences Donald Lopez – articulated that one useful way to determine one's experiences and future approach the topic is through the traditional triad of reincarnations, emphasizing ethical living ethics, meditation and wisdom. and moral responsibility. Ethics refers to the conscious restrain of nonvirtuous ❖ Dharma: One's duty based on social status deeds of body and speech, usually through or caste, fulfilling which leads to spiritual observing some form of vows. progress and better rebirths. The Four Truths (Chatvari-arya-satyani) Ultimate Goal Meditation (Dhyana) refers to developing a ❖ Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of rebirth, sufficient level of concentration (through a variety of achieved through spiritual enlightenment. techniques) to make mind a suitable tool for breaking through the illusion of self to the vision of ❖ Brahman and Atman: The realization that all nirvana. things are one with Brahman (the ultimate reality) and that Brahman and Atman (the Wisdom is insights, at a deep level of concentration, individual self) are identical. into the fact that there is no self. Such wisdom is said not only to prevent the accumulation of future karma BUDDHISM but eventually to destroy all past karma so that upon death, one is not reborn but passes into nirvana. Buddhism was born from the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha who lived between the 4. How human beings ought to live a life free from 6th and 4th BCE. suffering by following the Eightfold Path or Astangika-marga. A sheltered prince, Buddha sought the meaning of existence when he realized that Eightfold Path or Astangika-marga. human life is suffering. The Buddha’s lifelong search led him to extreme 1. Correct view, an accurate understanding of asceticism. the nature of things, specifically the Four Noble Truths. Gautama Buddha/Buddha discovered that enlightenment and salvation could be 2. Correct intention, avoiding thoughts of achieved in ordinary human life if people attachment, hatred, and harmful intent. are enlightened about the nature of suffering. 3. Correct speech, refraining from verbal misdeeds such as lying, divisive speech, People who seek to arrive at a higher level harsh speech, and senseless speech. of enlightenment, where one can see 4. Correct action, refraining from physical ❖ A person of ren knows how to act properly misdeeds such as killing, stealing, and or with propriety in all situations giving all sexual misconduct. situations and things their due, but it is also about being human and the relationships 5. 5. Correct livelihood, avoiding trades that between persons. directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves, weapons, animals for Ren: Human-heartedness and slaughter, intoxicants, or poisons. Benevolence 6. 6. Correct effort, abandoning negative ❖ Manuel B. Dy explains that "Ren is made up states of mind that have already arisen, of two characters, ren, meaning human preventing negative states that have yet to being, and erh, meaning two, indicating arise, and sustaining positive states that thus that ren is the virtue that governs have already arisen. interpersonal relationships. Ren is translated as 'benevolence,' 'kindness,' 'human- 7. 7. Correct mindfulness, awareness of body, heartedness,' 'humanity, and when feelings, thought and phenomena (the Confucius was asked for its meaning, he constituents of the existing world). said, 'Ren is to love human beings" (Analects, 12:22) 8. 8. Correct concentration, single- mindedness. Li: Ritual, Propriety, and Order CHINESE PHILOSOPHY AND ❖ Li refers to the proper rituals, customs, and CONFUCIAN ETHICS social etiquette that govern human behavior. Introduction to Chinese Philosophy ❖ It provides a framework for harmonious Confucianism, a system of thought interactions within society, from family originating in ancient China, has profoundly relationships to state governance. influenced Chinese society, culture, and governance. While not the sole ethical ❖ By following li, individuals align themselves framework in China, it stands as a with the cosmic order (Dao) and contribute cornerstone due to its emphasis on social to social stability. harmony, personal cultivation, and the importance of relationships. ❖ Filial piety, a central Confucian value, falls under li, emphasizing respect and care for Confucianism is a system of thought one's parents and ancestors. attributed to the teacher Kongqui, known in the West as Confucius. The Interplay of Ren and Li ❖ Confucius (Kong Qui), a philosopher and ❖ Ren and li are interconnected and mutually teacher, laid the groundwork for reinforcing. Confucianism. His focus was on creating a harmonious and ordered society through ❖ Ren provides the moral foundation, while li individual moral cultivation. offers the practical guidelines for expressing ren in daily life. ❖ The Analects is the primary text containing Confucius’ teachings, presented as a ❖ By mastering li, individuals cultivate ren and collection of conversations and anecdotes. become exemplary models for society. ❖ Other key Confucian texts include the Book ❖ The ultimate goal is to achieve a state of of Mencius, Doctrine of the Mean, and The "harmonious ease" where li is practiced Great Learning, which expand and effortlessly and naturally. systematize Confucian thought. The Role of Education and Leadership Ren: Human-heartedness and Benevolence ❖ Confucianism places great importance on education as a means to cultivate ren and li. ❖ There is one basic aspiration for any Confucian, that is, to be a person who has ❖ Education focuses on moral development the virtue of ren, to be a person who has and character building rather than mere internalized the way of Heaven knowledge acquisition. ❖ Heaven - It is the order that must govern ❖ Moral leadership is essential for a one's way of being for people to find their harmonious society. Rulers and leaders peace. should embody ren and li to inspire their people.  ❖ This section only seeks to give the NORMATIVE THEORIES OF BUSINESS student a sense of what the main trends of ETHICS Asian ethical thought are. Buddhism and Confucianism are only two of the major THE STOCKHOLDER THEORY traditions from this continent and its long history of philosophizing. These two are the This theory states that "businesses are most relevant to the student given their merely arrangements by which one group influence among the Filipino people. of people, the stockholders, advance capital to another group, the managers, to be used CHAPTER 8. BUSINESS ETHICS to realize specified ends and for which the stockholders receive an ownership interest Business ethics is the moral principles, policies, and in the venture." In this theory, it is the people values that govern the way companies and who invested money in the company that individuals engage in business activity. It goes serves as the main source of business beyond legal requirements to establish a code of decisions. conduct that drives employee behavior at all levels and helps build trust between a business and its As Hasnas explains, "If the stockholders vote customers. that the business should not close a plant without giving its employees 90 days notice, 12 PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS ETHICS should have no dealings with a country with a racists regime, or should endow a local LEADERSHIP public library, the management is obligated to carry out such a directive regardless of its ACCOUNTABILITY effect on the business' bottom line." INTEGRITY THE STAKEHOLDER THEORY RESPECT FOR OTHERS This theory "holds that the management's fundamental obligation is not to maximize HONESTY the firm's financial success but to ensure its survival by balancing the conflicting claims RESPECT FOR LAWS of multiple stakeholders." RESPONSIBILITY Stakeholder is defined as any group or individual that stands to benefit or suffer TRANSPARENCY from decisions made by a corporation. COMPASSION This obligation, according to Hasnas, is based on the two principles of stakeholder FAIRNESS management: LOYALTY 1. Principle of corporate legitimacy.. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN 2. Stakeholder fiduciary principle. Multinational corporations are companies THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY that have manufacturing, marketing, service, and administrative operations in many This normative theory states that "all different nations. They market their products businesses are ethically obligated to in whatever nations that offer manufacturing enhance the welfare of society by satisfying advantages and attractive markets. They consumer and employee interests without draw capital, raw materials, and human violating any of the general canons of labor from wherever in the world they are justice." This theory posits an implicit cheap and available. All of the 500 largest agreement between businesses and society U.S. industrial corporations are that the latter only tolerates the existence multinationals. and operation of the former under the supposition that it can benefit from it. Corporate Social Responsibility, commonly referred to as CSR, is a company's strategic Reidenbach and Robin's Conceptual initiative to contribute to the well-being of Model of Corporate Moral Development society and the environment. Also known as corporate citizenship, CSR aims to positively R. Eric Reidenbach and Donald P. Robin contribute to the reduction of waste and argue that there are certain organizational pollution in the environment and contribute behaviors that exhibit a business's level of to social welfare causes, such as educational moral development. While it is true that programs for the poor. profit is the main goal of any business enterprise, society demands that corporations also try to contribute to certain recognizes the existence of a social contract social goals. It cannot be denied that there between business and society. The ethical is a certain culture that may tolerate consequences of any corporate decision unethical behavior on the part of business are given weight along with its potential for enterprises. It is, therefore, necessary that profitability. there be an objective measure or standard against which the prevailing ethical culture STAGE 5: THE ETHICAL OGANIZATION of a business may be judged as either ethical or sub-ethical. Stage five behavior is characterized by an organization-wide acceptance of a common There are five stages that comprise the set of ethical values that permeates the model: amoral, legalistic, responsive, organization's culture. These core values emerging ethical, and ethical. The model is guide the everyday behavior of an inspired by Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of individual's actions. Decisions are made Moral Development. Reidenbach and Robin based on the inherent justness and fairness assert that a direct application of Kohlberg's of the decision as well as the profitability of model is not possible since individuals do the decision. In this sense, there is a balance not develop in the same manner as between concerns for profits and ethics. organizations. WHY IS BUSINESS ETHICS IMPORTANT? The stages of organizational moral development Brand recognition and growth Increased ability to negotiate STAGE 1: THE AMORAL ORGANIZATION Increased trust in products and This type of organization is defined by a services "winning at any cost" attitude. Ethics is the least of its concerns. It is an enterprise Customer retention and growth completely absorbed in productivity and profitability. It only thinks about ethics when Attracting talent it gets caught in some wrongdoing. For this Attracting investors type of organization, the only social responsibility of a business is to make a CONCLUSION profit. Ethics involves understanding how to STAGE 2: THE LEGALISTIC conduct oneself in relation to others, but CORPORATION business is often viewed as being driven solely by the pursuit of profit. However, Firms in stage two "exhibit compliance with businesses can operate ethically by the letter of the law as opposed to the spirit incorporating values like justice and fairness of the law." An organization in this state of into their practices. As a business matures, it moral development exhibits respect for becomes aware of its social responsibilities, laws, codes, and regulations. This firm is recognizing that its operations impact both concerned with following, state rules, human and non-human stakeholders. In placing a premium on the legality of action doing so, it understands its role in ensuring over its morality. the well-being of its stakeholders and the STAGE 3: THE RESPONSIVE broader community, including the natural CORPORATION environment. This type of corporation begins to acquire CHAPTER 6. DISCOURSE ETHICS values other than profitability and legality. Most people assume that they know what is Firms of this type have it in their interest to right and wrong. People can easily judge do right, but it considers more expediency what is right or wrong based on their rather than an end in itself. In other words, common sense. these types of corporations are inclined to give in to societal demands and, therefore, For example, anyone would have an opinion realize that business has an obligation to about wife beating. operate with society in mind. Some men and women would immediately STAGE 4: THE EMERGENT ETHICAL agree that particular women deserve that OGANIZATION beating because they act against some norms or talking flirtatiously to another man This type of organization actively seeks a or not preparing dinner on time. greater balance between profit and ethics. It  Wife-beating or any form of beating is using this reason could legislate the good unacceptable and inexcusable. for himself. Wife-beating as a normal course of As long as the autonomous humans had behavior that is a private matter between rules for legitimately legislating for husband and wife. themselves an understanding of the good that everyone could accept as rational, then Other people understand this as a crime there would be a universal conception of that the state must intervene in. the good that was not dependent on a god or a cosmos. Often, people do not think of moral issues as problematic because they have an What if the other ways of understanding the ethical framework from which to interpret good of the other peoples were equally as valid actions. This is something they do not as Western ways of understanding the good? usually construct with awareness but accept from their cultures and societies. For example, the women’s movement was at this time asserting itself, and white However, not everyone looks at things in women began to realize that they had the same way. One has a way of different ways of valuing reality that was understanding reality based on social equally legitimate but different from men. status, ethnicity, generation, historical situation, and gender. And so, ethical thinking was faced with the reality of multiple cultures and possible However, not everyone looks at things in conceptions of the good. the same way. One has a way of understanding reality based on social This is why discourse theory emerged. status, ethnicity, generation, historical situation, and gender. DISCOURSE THEORY But people’s perspective on the good are It is a theory that shows rational people how to arrive particular, and human beings feel that some at a shared conception of the good using reason conceptions of the good are more fruitful alone. In this case, reason meant the various forms and creative for living a human life. It is even of the reason of people from different cultures and possible that some conceptions of the good systems of values. Discourse theory sought to violate the integrity of human existence. articulate the basic principles for arriving at a consensual understanding of the good so that If we need to live together, we have to people in a shared world could live with each other. have a shared conception of the good. And if that is so, what is the basis of the Jurgen Habermas shared conception of the good? He is the most important philosopher of In pre-modern times, it was easier to have discourse theory. a shared conception of the good. People believed that the gods or the cosmos Habermas was born in Germany on 1929 imposed a natural law and the good was and was formed as thinker during the post- based on the transcendent order. World War II reconstruction. It did not matter what people believed; the One of his most important contributions to universe had its order and the good was philosophy is the analysis of the emergence based on that order. Free human beings, of the public sphere and civil society, as well one way or the other, only had to as his articulation of discourse theory and understand how human actions were discourse processes. defined by that order and all will be well. COMPETING CONCEPTIONS OF THE GOOD However, when the Western world began to emphasize the autonomy of the human As discussed, the foundational idea that being from the will and intelligence of a brought about the emergence of discourse transcendent God, people lost the basis of ethics is the idea that there are competing the good that everyone could agree with. conceptions of the good in modernized The primary task of the Western men was societies. This means that societies today to find the basis of the conception of the are no longer homogenous and people good that did not rely on the transcendent have different reasons, including moral order. reasoning. In large societies where large multiplicity of peoples need to be They realized that the human person was accommodated, conflict and justice cannot an autonomous being who had reason and be avoided.  Any society needs a dominant systems to Here, the aim is still to formulate universalizable guide free and autonomous people norms, but there is the acceptance that no one regarding what is acceptable behavior. The person bears the rationality of all people universally. dominant system also determines what acceptable and unacceptable behavior, The Basic Character of Discourse Procedures what can be expected, and what duties persons have to each other and to society. Argumentative form. “LEGISLATING” FOR AUTONOMOUS, Inclusive and public. RATIONAL BEING Uncoerced The basic idea of discourse theory is that human beings are rational and autonomous, Free of any internal coercion. and as such, need to legislate for themselves their rules of behavior. This Aim in general at rationally motivated means that they are free beings who usually agreements. act when these actions makes sense to Regulated in the equal interest of all. them. Interpretation of needs and wants. There are many reasons why certain actions makes sense to them; What is a shared opinion and will? One reason is practicality, that one should do something because the outcome is People live in harmony and peace with each beneficial to him/her. other, when despite their competing conceptions of the good, they can reconcile One also acts because he/she is fearful of or their differences and together articulate a desires to avoid negative consequences. conception of the good that they can People also act based on authority. They do equally accept. Once they have a shared things because the persons they respect or conception of the good, then they can act recognize as the bearers of the community together to realize this good in the world. say so. Their shared conception of the good becomes their shared norm for acting People have a need to realize their potential together. as free beings. But they are not just free beings who seek to realize their fullest Creative Dialogue potential. This fullest potential can be called Founded on mutual justification because as the good. they justify to each other what they Kant formulated this categorical imperative understand to be good, the participants in on which to base the legislation of one’s creative discourse begin to understand that duty. not all conceptions of the good are acceptable to people. “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a For example, universal law.” CONCEPTIONS OF LAND OWNERSHIP Habermas comes up with a modification of Kant’s Indigenous People – Land cannot be categorical imperative to base the legislation of owned one’s duty. He proposes the following condition for the acceptability of a norm: Modern westernized People – Land is belonging to the state. “(U) All affected can accept the consequences and the side effects its general observance can COMPROMISES vs. CONSENSUS be anticipated to have for the satisfaction of everyone’s interests(and these consequences are Compromises entails accepting the preferred to those of known alternative positions of others because of practical possibilities for regulation).” needs, coercion, acquiescence or the simple recognition of the power persons Thus, Habermas comes up with the principle have over one’s self. of discourse ethics: *Coercion – the practice of persuading “(D) Only those norms can claim to be valid that someone to do something by using force or meet(or could meet) with the approval of all threats. affected in their capacity as participants inn a practical discourse.”  * Acquiescence – the reluctant acceptance institutions or organizations that exists to of something without protest. represent that voices of the various citizens in the public sphere. Consensus – it is born out of mutual recognition that the position arrived at is the ***Using discourse theory principles to activate best that all participants can agree on given these systems could go a long way in building this what they know and can know at the nation.*** moment. It has to do with the building of a shared conception of the good that all Habermas provides an ideal discourse persons involve can agree on. situation for people to build norms of behavior consensually. But whether this is SHARED OPINION AND WILL- ideal or in the world of praxis, Habermas FORMATION provides us with reasonable norms in a multiverse of rationalities. In other words, the SHARED OPINION ON THE GOOD is the product of a fair process His criteria for fair and reasonable discourse where even people whose positions are not can be used in shaping our systems of taken can accept the dominant position governance at every level as well as in our because it is the most reasonable and processes for creating consensus in seeking makes the most sense. norms to define the norms of our shared lives. BASIC PRINCIPLES TO ENSURE FAIRNESS(HABERMAS) 1. All affected must be part of the process of deliberation. 2. The process must be fair such that all external influences like power and money are suspended and only the force of the better argument has influence over the participant. 3. All decisions or agreements have a “for now” characteristics. DEMOCRACY AND DISCOURSE The Philippine nation is divided among various cultures or ethnolinguistic communities. This is not to mention the fact that people are divided according to class and sectoral concerns as well. However, one of the greatest divides between rationalities is divide between the dominant classes and the vast majority of people. The government and its system from WESTERN DEMOCRACIES, Laws on land ownership Legal dispute resolution Lawmaking Bureaucratic processes Economic system DISCOURSE THEORIES AND ITS IMPORTANT FRAMEWORK FOR REFORM One of the most important paths to that reform is the strengthening of civil society