Psychology Quiz 2 PDF

L3: Learning 1 L4: Memory 6 L5: Sensation & Perception 11 L3: Learning Learning: a relativel...

L3: Learning 1 L4: Memory 6 L5: Sensation & Perception 11 L3: Learning Learning: a relatively permanent change of behaviour or mental process - due to experience - Conditioning - due to stimulus -> response (environment) - behaviours can be observable/ non-observable - do the exercise on p.5 -> how it can linked to the concept, which can be Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov - a previously neutral stimulus become associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing NS: bell ring/ ticking sound UCS: food UCR/ CR: salivation Before conditioning: NS -> no response UCS -> UCR During conditioning: NS + UCS -> UCR First NS, then give UCS -> more effective ie. ring the bell first, and then give the food After conditioning: CS -> CR NS becomes CS to elicit CR Acquisition - forming new responses since CS-UCS is learnt Extinction - weakening CS when CS is repeatedly presented alone without UCS Spontaneous recovery: - reappearing of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS - second spontaneous recovery: after a pause -> increases CR, but then slowly fade Example: - The Little Albert Experiment: learn to fear the white and furry objects - pair up NS (white and furry objects) and UCS (loud noises) -> UCR - Pairing cars with attractive women to boost sales - NS (car) + UCS (attractive women) -> UCR - Paring of thunderstorm to plane crash - NS(thunderstorm) + UCS (plane crash) -> UCR (anxiety) - CS (thunderstorm) -> CR (anxiety) - the paring can be done once, no need to repeat - emotional responses elicit by music - Conditioned Nausea: - If a person experiences nausea (UR) after eating a certain food (US), they may later feel nauseous (CR) just by smelling or thinking about that food (CS). - actual experience (UCS) + smelling perfume/ seeing things (NS) - smelling perfume/ seeing things (CS) -> conjured up memories (CR) Other issues - stimulus generalization - elicit the same response to similar stimuli - e.g. Little Albert, not only scared of rats, but all sorts of white and furry objects - stimulus discrimination - elicit particular response to some stimuli but not to others Operant conditioning - Skinner - a learning process through which the frequency of behaviours increase or decrease as a result of its consequences Skinner’s box - reinforcement - press the lever -> get food  - positive reinforcement - press the lever -> shock turned off - negative reinforcement Q: determine what kind of reinforcement/ punishment is it determine whether it 1. increases/ decrease the likelihood of the particular behaviours - increase -> reinforcement - decrease -> punishment 2. determine if it is negative/ positive - remove aversive stimuli/ pleasant stimuli -> negative - add pleasant stimuli/ aversive stimulus -> positive e.g. A manager increases their team’s workload, and performance drops. The manager reduces the workload to its original amount -> negative reforcemnet Other issues: - immediate consequences are more effective than the delayed ones - acquisition through shaping - reinforcement of closer and closer approximation of a desired response - e.g. rat getting closer and closer to the lever Schedule of consequences - fixed ratio schedule (FR) - variable ratio schedule - e.g. gambling, IG algorithm posts, - fixed interval schedule (FI) - variable interval schedule (VI) - e.g. flash sales Q: determine what kind of schedule consequences is it 1. ratio/ interval - number -> ratio NR - time -> interval TI 2. fixed/ variable  - fixed: predictable, fixed - variable: unpredictable Note - variable schedule: higher resistance to extinction, behaviour continue even the reinforcement is stopped - higher variability -> more motivated - fixed schedule: lower resistance to extinction - shorter interval -> generate higher rates - higher ratio -> generate higher rates e.g. Animal training: A dog sits and receives a treat every time it follows a command. Eventually, the dog sits without needing to see the treat Observational learning - Albert Bandura - social learning theory - imitation/ modelling 4 processes in modelling (ARRM) - attention: focus on the behaviour & the consequences - retention: rmb - reproduction: observable behaviour - motivation e.g. seeing other ppl under operant conditioning/ classical conditioning -> don’t do that behaviour e.g. Bobo Doll experiment: seeing aggression -> do aggression e.g. children watching videos of ppl being rewarded/ punished for their aggressive acts e.g. children learn to become aggressive at home e.g. watching parents fight -> may lead to bullying e.g. children learn their fears from their parents e.g. model: watching sad movies -> cry - vicarious/ indirect reinforcement - involve cognitive process e.g. attention, retention, reproduction Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning learning by association learning by consequences learning through watching -> NS and UCS reinforcement/ punishment no reinforcement involved involuntary behaviour voluntary behaviour change voluntary responses change novel behaviours L4: Memory Memory: the retention of information over time - It is a system that receives, organizes, stores and retrieves the information Encoding 1. The role of attention - ∵ limited mental resources -> we pay attention dependent on - Meaning of the tasks - e.g. student focuses intensely on study material for an important exam, ignoring distractions - Similarity between the competing tasks - e.g. reading a book while listening to a podcast may lead to difficulty concentrating on both ∵ both require language processing - Complexity or difficulty of tasks - e.g. a beginner musician struggles to remember notes in a complex piece, while a skilled musician focuses easily - Individual ability to control attention - e.g. one student can concentrate in a noisy classroom, while another is easily distracted Change blindness – where our focus puts e.g. counting the number of times that basketballs is passed, noticed gorilla e.g. eye witness test e.g. drivers only focus the road ahead, without noticing the pedestrian or obstacle in their peripheral vision 2. Level of Processing - Structural - shallow - e.g. capitalized letters, colour  - Phenomic - intermediate - e.g. how to pronounce that word, rhyme with kitty - Semantic - deep - e.g. how to use pretty in a sentence - e.g. create mental image, acronyms, flow chart, mind map - https://helpfulprofessor.com/semantic-encoding/ -> the deeper the level of processing -> more lasting memory codes -> better memory (Semantic encoding has a similar nature as elaborative rehearsal, it’s just that one is done in encoding, one is done in the rehearsal) so they have the same examples, it’s just the timing difference - Enriching encoding - Elaboration - linking a stimulus to other information - examples - Visual memory - visual images - concrete words > abstract words - Self-referent encoding - making materials personally meaningful Storage 1. Sensory memory - brief preservation of information in original sensory form - very limited duration - Auditory or visual - ~ ¼ sec - very limited capacity - It disappear when no more attention is paid 2. Short-term memory (STM) - work space for mental operations (station where info is transferred to long term memory) - Encoding: heavily relies on phonological code (how the words sound like) - Storage: - Retrieval: often immediate, relies heavily on cues - limited duration - ~ 20 secs without rehearsal - limited capacity - 7±2 items items 3. Long-term memory (LTM) - Encoding: relies on semantic encoding  - Storage: stored in hippocampus, the memory are organized into networks/ schemas to make retrieval of info more efficient - Retrieval: takes longer time to retrieve, well-structured schemas facilitate memory retrieval - unlimited duration - unlimited capacity - organization of info - form a schema: a semantic network model - - While LTM has the potential to be permanent, it is not infallible. Memories can fade, become distorted, or be forgotten over time due to factors like decay, interference, or retrieval failure - retrieval failure - Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: This is a common experience where a person feels they know a piece of information but cannot fully retrieve it at that moment, often recalling it later. - Forgetting Curve: Over time, without reinforcement or retrieval, memories can fade, leading to retrieval failure. Types of long-term memory - Declarative / Explicit - episodic: specific events or experiences from one’s life - semantic - e.g. general knowledge, vocabulary, historical facts, mathematical concepts, scientific facts, cultural knowledge, geographical information, conceptual relationships - Procedural/ Implicit - e.g. motor skills, habits, classically conditioned reflexes If having Alzheimer's diseases/ Dementia  - first lost the semantic memory -> episodic memory -> procedural memory - e.g. mistook kitchen as a place for toilet, eat non-food as food Relationship between STM & LTM 1. Rehearsal brings info from STM to LTM - Maintenance rehearsal - repeat phenological code - better for STM - Elaborative rehearsal - drawing the meaning (semantic) - better for LTM - can make use of self-referent encoding, help building the semantic network Serial-position effect - Primacy effect - chance for rehearsal -> may enter LTM - Recency effect - it is still in STM, no info coming after it to interfere with retrieval - if you are confident -> be the first one/ last one to talk - if you dk -> be the middle one 2. STM use materials in LTM to understand information - chunking - grouping similar stimuli for storage as a single unit 3. Biological support for the distinction between STM & LTM - hippocampus is critical for LTM, not STM e.g. Henry Molaiso: he cannot form LTM (STM cannot be converted into LTM) ∵ hippocampus is cut ∴ Rehearsal & chunking helps building LTM Retrieval 1. Retrieval cues - free recall VS cued recall  - cued recall: e.g. present the fits letter of the word - free recall VS recognition - recognition e.g. MCQs - info stored > info accessible in memory - Failure in retrieval: unable to access information from memory 2. Reinstating the context of an event - Encoding specificity principle - the value of the retrieval cues depends how well it correspond to the memory code - context e.g. location - mood Forgetting - ineffective encoding ∵ lack of attention/ processing - decay principle - memory loss due to time - interference theory - competing info - motivated forgetting - unpleasant feeling -> repression - biological factor - e.g. Alzheimer’s disease & Brain injury -> amnesia Strategies - adequate rehearsal - distributive practice - deep processing - organization - e.g. flow chart, mind map - meaningfulness - distributive practice - better for LTM - mass practice - better for STM (esp for maintenance rehearsal) L5: Sensation & Perception Sensation: outside stimulus activate sensory receptors and change the physical energy into meaningless electrical signals -> send to the brain to process - human’s sensations is more or less the same stimulus -> sense receptors -> transduction (sensory receptors convert physical energy -> neural impulses) -> brain: primary area, brain: association area (integrate info & context) -> personalized perception Perception: human has an active role in perception, the perception can be different across time and situations Adaption: the more the sense organs are exposed to a continuous level of stimulation -> the decreasing response e.g. the background noise of the air conditioner stopped e.g. the smell of the perfume fade From sensation to perception sensation: receive information from outside through seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and touching senses - rather passive process perception: information is transmitted to the brain ie. selection, organisation, interpretation of sensory inputs is gone through - active process Vision - Eye - detect light entry - blind spot: does not contain any rods and cones - blind spot test: if both eyes open -> perceptual filling in -> you will be always able to see the image - fovea: contain more cones than rods - colour blindness: missing certain types of cones Audition - Ears - air pressure -> require medium to pass the signal e.g. air/ water - we cannot hear anything in the space ∵ vacuum Perceptual threshold - a point where > is perceived, < is not perceived - just noticeable difference (JND) - higher threshold: more difficult to detect the difference require larger change in stimuli to detect the difference Perception principles Gestalt Principles - individual elements are to be organized into a meaningful pattern/ perception 1. figure-ground - object of interest & background - no both interpretations at one time 2. similarity - red dots and green dots are grouped together 3. closure - e.g. dotted lines are grouped tgt 4. proximity 5. simplicity 6. continuity 2 types of processing - bottom-up processing - drive by stimulus features - feature analysis - esp when we are presented with new things - e.g. a person is navigating a dimly lit room - top-down processing - driven on prior experience and expectation - perceptual hypothesis - context - e.g. Gestalt Principles, reading words rather than letters -> most of the time, we use both types of processing Illusion - discrepancy between visual appearance and physical reality e.g. motion illusion 1. Ames room 2. Ponzo illusion  3. Muller Lyer illusion Acquisition - process of learning a new behaviour through reinforcement Extinction - previously reinforced behaviour is no longer reinforced, leading to a decrease in that behaviour over time - resistance to extinction: the degree to which a learned behaviour persists even after the reinforcement that originally encouraged Spontaneous recovery - reappearance of a previously extinguished behaviour after a period without reinforcement