Psychology Learning and Conditioning Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What is the concept of perceptual threshold primarily concerned with?

  • The complexity of stimuli interactions.
  • The absolute clarity of sensory input.
  • The ability to distinguish multiple stimuli simultaneously.
  • The point at which a stimulus is detectable. (correct)
  • Which Gestalt principle involves the organization of elements based on their closeness to one another?

  • Closure
  • Simplicity
  • Proximity (correct)
  • Similarity
  • In which scenario is bottom-up processing most likely utilized?

  • Recalling a memory from childhood.
  • Navigating through a dimly lit room. (correct)
  • Reading unfamiliar words in a new language.
  • Recognizing a familiar face in a crowd.
  • What is spontaneous recovery in the context of learning behaviors?

    <p>The reappearance of a behavior after a break from reinforcement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes an illusion?

    <p>A discrepancy between visual appearance and physical reality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reinforcement is described when a manager reduces an increased workload back to its original amount?

    <p>Negative reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which consequence schedule provides reinforcement based on the number of responses made by the subject?

    <p>Fixed ratio schedule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In operant conditioning, what is the effect of immediate consequences compared to delayed ones on behavior modification?

    <p>Immediate consequences are more effective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the learning process that involves the reinforcement of closer approximations to a desired behavior?

    <p>Shaping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a dog is given a treat every time it sits on command, what type of schedule of reinforcement is being utilized?

    <p>Fixed ratio schedule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of learning is characterized by the attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation processes?

    <p>Observational learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior?

    <p>Negative reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following schedules of reinforcement is noted for having a higher resistance to extinction?

    <p>Variable ratio schedule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the process of acquisition in classical conditioning?

    <p>Formation of new responses due to learned association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes spontaneous recovery?

    <p>The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of stimulus generalization?

    <p>Learning to fear all dogs after being bitten by a specific breed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of classical conditioning, what does the acronym CS stand for?

    <p>Conditioned stimulus, which initially is neutral before learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of extinction in classical conditioning?

    <p>The repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus leads to a decreased conditioned response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Little Albert Experiment illustrate about classical conditioning?

    <p>Emotional responses can be conditioned through pairing stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between operant conditioning and observational learning?

    <p>Operant conditioning involves reinforcement, while observational learning does not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of long-term memory encompasses general knowledge like historical facts and vocabulary?

    <p>Semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scenario is an example of vicarious reinforcement?

    <p>A child observing a parent being praised for their work.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a person feels nauseous after smelling a specific food, which classical conditioning concept does this exemplify?

    <p>Conditioned nausea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of memory, what type of processing involves focusing on the meaning of information?

    <p>Semantic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the context of Pavlov's dog experiment?

    <p>The food presented to the dog</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what order are the types of memory lost when affected by Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>Semantic memory, Episodic memory, Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method of rehearsal is better for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?

    <p>Elaborative rehearsal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Change blindness is best described as what phenomenon?

    <p>Failing to notice changes in the environment due to selective attention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of chunking in memory processing?

    <p>To combine multiple stimuli into a single unit for easier storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of attention in memory encoding?

    <p>Attention determines what information is discarded before encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors does NOT influence a person's ability to control attention?

    <p>The time of day that the task is performed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain structure is critical for the formation of long-term memory?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the primacy effect in memory recall refer to?

    <p>Better recall of the first items presented</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning is characterized by voluntary responses based on consequences?

    <p>Operant conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of recall requires a specific cue to help retrieve information?

    <p>Cued recall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Bobo Doll experiment, children displayed aggressive behavior after observing what?

    <p>Adults being rewarded for aggressive acts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does encoding specificity principle aid in retrieval?

    <p>It suggests that information is only accessible when the context matches the encoding context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Learning

    • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes due to experience.
    • Classical conditioning: a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing.
      • Ivan Pavlov is credited with discovering classical conditioning through his famous experiment with dogs.
      • Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that does not elicit a response before conditioning.
      • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without prior learning.
      • Unconditioned response (UCR): a natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.
      • During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
      • Conditioned stimulus (CS): the neutral stimulus after it has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
      • Conditioned response (CR): the learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
    • Key processes in classical conditioning:
      • Acquisition: the initial learning of the association between the CS and UCS.
      • Extinction: the weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
      • Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS.
    • Examples of classical conditioning:
      • Little Albert Experiment: Albert learned to fear white and furry objects after they were repeatedly paired with loud noises.
      • Advertising: Pairing cars with attractive women to boost sales.
      • Conditioned nausea: A person may experience nausea after eating a certain food, leading to a learned aversion to the food. Smell or thinking about the food (CS) can trigger nausea (CR).
    • Key terms related to classical conditioning:
      • Stimulus generalization: eliciting the same response to similar stimuli.
      • Stimulus discrimination: eliciting particular responses to specific stimuli but not others.

    Operant Conditioning

    • Operant conditioning is a type of learning where the frequency of behaviors increases or decreases depending on their consequences.
    • B. F. Skinner is a key figure in operant conditioning.
    • Reinforcement: a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
      • Positive reinforcement: adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
      • Negative reinforcement: removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
    • Punishment: a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
      • Positive punishment: adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
      • Negative punishment: removing a positive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
    • Schedules of reinforcement:
      • Fixed ratio schedule (FR): reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.
      • Variable ratio schedule (VR): reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses.
      • Fixed interval schedule (FI): reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time.
      • Variable interval schedule (VI): reinforcement is delivered after a variable amount of time.
    • Key characteristics of schedules of reinforcement:
      • Variable schedules: result in higher resistance to extinction and higher rates of responding.
      • Fixed schedules: result in lower resistance to extinction and lower rates of responding.
      • Shorter intervals: generally lead to higher rates of responding.
      • Higher ratios: generally lead to higher rates of responding.

    Observational Learning

    • Albert Bandura developed the social learning theory, which emphasizes observational learning.
    • Observational learning: learning by observing and imitating others, also known as modeling.
    • Four key processes in observational learning (ARRM):
      • Attention: Focusing on the behavior and its consequences.
      • Retention: Remembering the behavior and its consequences.
      • Reproduction: Being able to physically perform the observed behavior.
      • Motivation: Having a reason to perform the observed behavior.
    • Examples of observational learning:
      • Bobo doll experiment: Children who observed adults acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll were more likely to act aggressively themselves.
      • Learning fears from parents: Children may learn fears from their parents' reactions to certain things.
      • Modeling behavior from media: Watching videos or movies with characters exhibiting certain behaviors can influence a viewer's own behavior.
    • Vicarious reinforcement: learning by observing the consequences of others' actions.

    Memory

    • Memory: the retention of information over time. It involves receiving, organizing, storing and retrieving information.
    • Key stages of memory:
      • Encoding: the initial processing of information into a form that can be stored in memory.
      • Storage: Maintaining the encoded information in memory.
      • Retrieval: Accessing the stored information when needed.
    • Factors influencing encoding:
      • Attention: Focusing mental resources on specific information.
      • Level of processing: How deeply information is processed during encoding.
        • Structural: shallow processing, focused on physical features (e.g., capital letters, color).
        • Phenomic: intermediate processing, focused on sounds (e.g., how to pronounce a word).
        • Semantic: deep processing, focused on meaning (e.g., understanding the concept).
    • Types of long-term memory:
      • Declarative/ Explicit memory: memory that can be consciously recalled and verbally articulated.
        • Episodic memory: memories of specific events or personal experiences.
        • Semantic memory: memories of general knowledge, facts, and concepts.
      • Procedural/ Implicit memory: Memory that is not consciously recalled, but rather reflected in behavior.
        • Motor skills: riding a bike, playing a musical instrument.
        • Habits: tying your shoes, brushing your teeth.
        • Classically conditioned responses: conditioned fear, phobias.
    • Relationship between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM):
      • Rehearsal: repeating information to keep it active in STM and potentially transfer it to LTM.
        • **Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information superficially
        • Elaborative rehearsal: processing information deeply by connecting it to existing knowledge.
      • Chunking: organizing information into meaningful units to improve STM capacity.
      • Biological support for the distinction: The hippocampus plays a critical role in LTM but not STM. Damage to the hippocampus can impair LTM formation.
    • Retrieval: the process of accessing information from memory.
      • Retrieval cues: stimuli that aid in retrieving information from memory.
      • Encoding specificity principle: retrieval cues are most effective when they are similar to the conditions under which the information was initially encoded.
      • Context-dependent memory: memories are easier to retrieve when the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context.
      • State-dependent memory: memories are easier to retrieve when the internal state at retrieval matches the internal state at encoding.

    Sensation & Perception

    • Sensation: the process of detecting and receiving stimuli from the environment.

    • Perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, giving meaning to the world around us.

    • Perceptual threshold: the point where a stimulus is strong enough to be detected.

    • Just noticeable difference (JND): the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

    • Gestalt principles: principles that explain how we organize visual information into meaningful patterns.

      • Figure-ground: perceiving an object of interest (figure) against a background (ground).
      • Similarity: grouping similar stimuli together.
      • Closure: filling in missing information to perceive a complete object.
      • Proximity: grouping stimuli that are close together.
      • Simplicity: perceiving the simplest possible interpretation of a stimulus.
      • Continuity: perceiving smooth, continuous patterns over abrupt ones.
    • Types of processing:

      • Bottom-up processing: driven by the features of the stimuli.
      • Top-down processing: driven by prior knowledge, expectations, and context.
    • Illusions: discrepancies between visual appearance and physical reality.

      • Ames room: a room designed to create illusions of size and distance.
      • Ponzo illusion: two lines appear to be different lengths, but are actually the same length, due to surrounding context.
      • Muller-Lyer illusion: two lines appear to be different lengths, but are actually the same length, due to the orientation of their arrowheads.
    • Acquisition: the initial learning of an association between a CS and UCS.

    • Extinction: the weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

    • Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period without reinforcement

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    Psychology Quiz 2 PDF

    Description

    This quiz explores foundational concepts of learning, focusing on classical conditioning as discovered by Ivan Pavlov. Participants will learn about key terms such as neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and their associated responses. Test your knowledge on how these elements interact in the learning process.

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