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Questions and Answers
What is the concept of perceptual threshold primarily concerned with?
What is the concept of perceptual threshold primarily concerned with?
Which Gestalt principle involves the organization of elements based on their closeness to one another?
Which Gestalt principle involves the organization of elements based on their closeness to one another?
In which scenario is bottom-up processing most likely utilized?
In which scenario is bottom-up processing most likely utilized?
What is spontaneous recovery in the context of learning behaviors?
What is spontaneous recovery in the context of learning behaviors?
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Which of the following best describes an illusion?
Which of the following best describes an illusion?
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What type of reinforcement is described when a manager reduces an increased workload back to its original amount?
What type of reinforcement is described when a manager reduces an increased workload back to its original amount?
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Which consequence schedule provides reinforcement based on the number of responses made by the subject?
Which consequence schedule provides reinforcement based on the number of responses made by the subject?
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In operant conditioning, what is the effect of immediate consequences compared to delayed ones on behavior modification?
In operant conditioning, what is the effect of immediate consequences compared to delayed ones on behavior modification?
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What is the term for the learning process that involves the reinforcement of closer approximations to a desired behavior?
What is the term for the learning process that involves the reinforcement of closer approximations to a desired behavior?
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If a dog is given a treat every time it sits on command, what type of schedule of reinforcement is being utilized?
If a dog is given a treat every time it sits on command, what type of schedule of reinforcement is being utilized?
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What type of learning is characterized by the attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation processes?
What type of learning is characterized by the attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation processes?
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Which type of reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior?
Which type of reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior?
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Which of the following schedules of reinforcement is noted for having a higher resistance to extinction?
Which of the following schedules of reinforcement is noted for having a higher resistance to extinction?
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What occurs during the process of acquisition in classical conditioning?
What occurs during the process of acquisition in classical conditioning?
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Which of the following best describes spontaneous recovery?
Which of the following best describes spontaneous recovery?
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What is an example of stimulus generalization?
What is an example of stimulus generalization?
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In the context of classical conditioning, what does the acronym CS stand for?
In the context of classical conditioning, what does the acronym CS stand for?
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What is the result of extinction in classical conditioning?
What is the result of extinction in classical conditioning?
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What does the Little Albert Experiment illustrate about classical conditioning?
What does the Little Albert Experiment illustrate about classical conditioning?
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What is the primary difference between operant conditioning and observational learning?
What is the primary difference between operant conditioning and observational learning?
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What type of long-term memory encompasses general knowledge like historical facts and vocabulary?
What type of long-term memory encompasses general knowledge like historical facts and vocabulary?
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Which scenario is an example of vicarious reinforcement?
Which scenario is an example of vicarious reinforcement?
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If a person feels nauseous after smelling a specific food, which classical conditioning concept does this exemplify?
If a person feels nauseous after smelling a specific food, which classical conditioning concept does this exemplify?
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In the context of memory, what type of processing involves focusing on the meaning of information?
In the context of memory, what type of processing involves focusing on the meaning of information?
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What is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the context of Pavlov's dog experiment?
What is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the context of Pavlov's dog experiment?
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In what order are the types of memory lost when affected by Alzheimer's disease?
In what order are the types of memory lost when affected by Alzheimer's disease?
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Which method of rehearsal is better for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?
Which method of rehearsal is better for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?
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Change blindness is best described as what phenomenon?
Change blindness is best described as what phenomenon?
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What is the function of chunking in memory processing?
What is the function of chunking in memory processing?
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What is the role of attention in memory encoding?
What is the role of attention in memory encoding?
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Which of the following factors does NOT influence a person's ability to control attention?
Which of the following factors does NOT influence a person's ability to control attention?
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Which brain structure is critical for the formation of long-term memory?
Which brain structure is critical for the formation of long-term memory?
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What does the primacy effect in memory recall refer to?
What does the primacy effect in memory recall refer to?
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Which type of learning is characterized by voluntary responses based on consequences?
Which type of learning is characterized by voluntary responses based on consequences?
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What type of recall requires a specific cue to help retrieve information?
What type of recall requires a specific cue to help retrieve information?
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In the Bobo Doll experiment, children displayed aggressive behavior after observing what?
In the Bobo Doll experiment, children displayed aggressive behavior after observing what?
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How does encoding specificity principle aid in retrieval?
How does encoding specificity principle aid in retrieval?
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Study Notes
Learning
- Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes due to experience.
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Classical conditioning: a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing.
- Ivan Pavlov is credited with discovering classical conditioning through his famous experiment with dogs.
- Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that does not elicit a response before conditioning.
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without prior learning.
- Unconditioned response (UCR): a natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.
- During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): the neutral stimulus after it has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
- Conditioned response (CR): the learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
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Key processes in classical conditioning:
- Acquisition: the initial learning of the association between the CS and UCS.
- Extinction: the weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
- Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS.
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Examples of classical conditioning:
- Little Albert Experiment: Albert learned to fear white and furry objects after they were repeatedly paired with loud noises.
- Advertising: Pairing cars with attractive women to boost sales.
- Conditioned nausea: A person may experience nausea after eating a certain food, leading to a learned aversion to the food. Smell or thinking about the food (CS) can trigger nausea (CR).
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Key terms related to classical conditioning:
- Stimulus generalization: eliciting the same response to similar stimuli.
- Stimulus discrimination: eliciting particular responses to specific stimuli but not others.
Operant Conditioning
- Operant conditioning is a type of learning where the frequency of behaviors increases or decreases depending on their consequences.
- B. F. Skinner is a key figure in operant conditioning.
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Reinforcement: a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive reinforcement: adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
- Negative reinforcement: removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
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Punishment: a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive punishment: adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
- Negative punishment: removing a positive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
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Schedules of reinforcement:
- Fixed ratio schedule (FR): reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.
- Variable ratio schedule (VR): reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses.
- Fixed interval schedule (FI): reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time.
- Variable interval schedule (VI): reinforcement is delivered after a variable amount of time.
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Key characteristics of schedules of reinforcement:
- Variable schedules: result in higher resistance to extinction and higher rates of responding.
- Fixed schedules: result in lower resistance to extinction and lower rates of responding.
- Shorter intervals: generally lead to higher rates of responding.
- Higher ratios: generally lead to higher rates of responding.
Observational Learning
- Albert Bandura developed the social learning theory, which emphasizes observational learning.
- Observational learning: learning by observing and imitating others, also known as modeling.
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Four key processes in observational learning (ARRM):
- Attention: Focusing on the behavior and its consequences.
- Retention: Remembering the behavior and its consequences.
- Reproduction: Being able to physically perform the observed behavior.
- Motivation: Having a reason to perform the observed behavior.
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Examples of observational learning:
- Bobo doll experiment: Children who observed adults acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll were more likely to act aggressively themselves.
- Learning fears from parents: Children may learn fears from their parents' reactions to certain things.
- Modeling behavior from media: Watching videos or movies with characters exhibiting certain behaviors can influence a viewer's own behavior.
- Vicarious reinforcement: learning by observing the consequences of others' actions.
Memory
- Memory: the retention of information over time. It involves receiving, organizing, storing and retrieving information.
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Key stages of memory:
- Encoding: the initial processing of information into a form that can be stored in memory.
- Storage: Maintaining the encoded information in memory.
- Retrieval: Accessing the stored information when needed.
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Factors influencing encoding:
- Attention: Focusing mental resources on specific information.
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Level of processing: How deeply information is processed during encoding.
- Structural: shallow processing, focused on physical features (e.g., capital letters, color).
- Phenomic: intermediate processing, focused on sounds (e.g., how to pronounce a word).
- Semantic: deep processing, focused on meaning (e.g., understanding the concept).
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Types of long-term memory:
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Declarative/ Explicit memory: memory that can be consciously recalled and verbally articulated.
- Episodic memory: memories of specific events or personal experiences.
- Semantic memory: memories of general knowledge, facts, and concepts.
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Procedural/ Implicit memory: Memory that is not consciously recalled, but rather reflected in behavior.
- Motor skills: riding a bike, playing a musical instrument.
- Habits: tying your shoes, brushing your teeth.
- Classically conditioned responses: conditioned fear, phobias.
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Declarative/ Explicit memory: memory that can be consciously recalled and verbally articulated.
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Relationship between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM):
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Rehearsal: repeating information to keep it active in STM and potentially transfer it to LTM.
- **Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information superficially
- Elaborative rehearsal: processing information deeply by connecting it to existing knowledge.
- Chunking: organizing information into meaningful units to improve STM capacity.
- Biological support for the distinction: The hippocampus plays a critical role in LTM but not STM. Damage to the hippocampus can impair LTM formation.
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Rehearsal: repeating information to keep it active in STM and potentially transfer it to LTM.
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Retrieval: the process of accessing information from memory.
- Retrieval cues: stimuli that aid in retrieving information from memory.
- Encoding specificity principle: retrieval cues are most effective when they are similar to the conditions under which the information was initially encoded.
- Context-dependent memory: memories are easier to retrieve when the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context.
- State-dependent memory: memories are easier to retrieve when the internal state at retrieval matches the internal state at encoding.
Sensation & Perception
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Sensation: the process of detecting and receiving stimuli from the environment.
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Perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, giving meaning to the world around us.
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Perceptual threshold: the point where a stimulus is strong enough to be detected.
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Just noticeable difference (JND): the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
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Gestalt principles: principles that explain how we organize visual information into meaningful patterns.
- Figure-ground: perceiving an object of interest (figure) against a background (ground).
- Similarity: grouping similar stimuli together.
- Closure: filling in missing information to perceive a complete object.
- Proximity: grouping stimuli that are close together.
- Simplicity: perceiving the simplest possible interpretation of a stimulus.
- Continuity: perceiving smooth, continuous patterns over abrupt ones.
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Types of processing:
- Bottom-up processing: driven by the features of the stimuli.
- Top-down processing: driven by prior knowledge, expectations, and context.
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Illusions: discrepancies between visual appearance and physical reality.
- Ames room: a room designed to create illusions of size and distance.
- Ponzo illusion: two lines appear to be different lengths, but are actually the same length, due to surrounding context.
- Muller-Lyer illusion: two lines appear to be different lengths, but are actually the same length, due to the orientation of their arrowheads.
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Acquisition: the initial learning of an association between a CS and UCS.
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Extinction: the weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
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Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period without reinforcement
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Description
This quiz explores foundational concepts of learning, focusing on classical conditioning as discovered by Ivan Pavlov. Participants will learn about key terms such as neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and their associated responses. Test your knowledge on how these elements interact in the learning process.