Quiz 1 Notes: Olmec, Mayan, Aztec Civilizations (PDF)

Science, Technology and Society 101 (Quiz 1 Notes) Olmec Civilization The Olmec were the first major civilization in Mexico. They lived in the tropical lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico in the present-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco. The name Olmec is a Nahuatl—the Aztec language—word; it m...

Science, Technology and Society 101 (Quiz 1 Notes) Olmec Civilization The Olmec were the first major civilization in Mexico. They lived in the tropical lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico in the present-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco. The name Olmec is a Nahuatl—the Aztec language—word; it means the rubber people. The Olmec might have been the first people to figure out how to convert latex of the rubber tree into something that could be shaped, cured, and hardened. Because the Olmec did not have much writing beyond a handful of carved glyphs—symbols—that survived, we don't know what name the Olmec people gave themselves. Appearing around 1600 BCE, the Olmec were among the first Mesoamerican complex societies, and their culture influenced many later civilizations, like the Maya. The Olmec are known for the immense stone heads they carved from a volcanic rock called basalt. Archaeological evidence also suggests that they originated the Mesoamerican practices of the Mesoamerican Ballgame—a popular game in the pre-Columbian Americas played with balls made from solid rubber— and that they may have practiced ritual bloodletting. Inventions and Contributions: Colossal Heads The Olmec are renowned for their creation of colossal stone heads, which are believed to represent rulers or elite figures. Seventeen of these heads have been discovered, mainly at sites such as San Lorenzo and La Venta. La Venta and San Lorenzo Ceremonial Centers The Olmecs built some of the earliest planned ceremonial centers in Mesoamerica, particularly at San Lorenzo and La Venta. These centers featured large platforms, pyramids, and courtyards used for religious and political ceremonies. The Great Pyramid of La Venta, for example, is one of the earliest pyramidal structures in Mesoamerica, demonstrating the Olmec’s influence on later architectural traditions. The Olmec Dragon and Other Deities The Olmecs developed a pantheon of gods that laid the foundation for Mesoamerican religious practices. One of the key deities was the Olmec Dragon, a sky god associated with rulers and power. Another important deity was the Were- Jaguar, a hybrid figure linked to shamanism and fertility. These deities and religious symbols influenced later civilizations like the Maya and Aztec, who adopted similar motifs in their own religions. The Cascajal Block and Early Writing The discovery of the Cascajal Block suggests that the Olmecs may have developed one of the earliest writing systems in Mesoamerica. This stone tablet contains 62 symbols, some of which resemble hieroglyphic writing. The Mesoamerican Ball Game The Olmecs are believed to have been the originators of the Mesoamerican ball game, pok-ta-pok (or pok-a-tok, an important ritual and sporting activity. Evidence of ball courts and rubber balls have been found at Olmec sites, such as San Lorenzo. The game, played with a solid rubber ball, was not only a form of entertainment but also had religious and political significance, a tradition that continued in later Mesoamerican civilizations like the Maya and the Aztec. Mayan Civilization The Maya are a culturally affiliated people that continue to speak their native languages and still often use the ancient 260-day ritual calendar for religious practices. The ancient Maya were united by belief systems, cultural practices that included a distinct architectural style, and a writing system. They were also joined by political interaction in the form of warfare and intermarriage. They left an artistic legacy that ranges from intricately carved monolithic sculptures to complex mural cycles. The ancient Maya are credited with creating the most advanced Mesoamerican writing system, which was logo-syllabic, meaning that it consists of pictorial symbols or glyphs that represent either entire words or syllables. It is the only pre-Hispanic writing system of Mesoamerica that has been largely deciphered. The Maya are also known for their advanced understanding of time, which they acquired through their study of astronomy and which allowed for the development of a complex calendrical system. Public inscriptions—which decorated temples and palaces—have also contributed to our knowledge of the Maya, providing archeologists with important dates, names, and ritual information. Historians divide Maya history into three periods: Pre-Classic: 1000 B.C.E.-250 C.E. Classic: 250-900 C.E. Post-Classic: 900-1521 C.E. The Classic Period is divided into Early Classic: 250-550 C.E. and Late Classic: 600-900 C.E. During the early Classic Period, the Maya had built only a few cities in Mesoamerica. By the Late Classic Period however, the population had grown and Maya cities had been founded throughout the region. Important Maya cities include Tikal in the east (in what is today Guatemala), Palenque in the west (what is today Mexico), and Copán in the south (in what is today Honduras). Inventions and Contributions: Maya Calendar Systems (Tzolk'in and Haab') The Maya developed two key calendars: the Tzolk'in, a 260-day ritual calendar, and the Haab', a 365-day solar calendar. These calendars worked together in the Calendar Round, a 52-year cycle used to plan religious ceremonies and agricultural events. The Maya also created the Long Count Calendar, which tracked longer periods of time and is associated with important historical events, including the creation of the world in Maya mythology. Maya Writing System The Maya developed one of the most advanced writing systems in pre-Columbian America, consisting of hieroglyphics that combined logograms and syllabic symbols. This system was used to record historical events, religious texts, and royal genealogies on stelae (stone monuments) and in codices, such as the Dresden Codex, which contains important information on astronomy and rituals. El Castillo (Temple of Kukulkan) The Maya built monumental structures, and one of the most iconic is El Castillo(Temple of Kukulkan) in Chichen Itza. This pyramid is designed with astronomical precision, aligned with the equinoxes when the shadows create the appearance of a serpent slithering down the stairs. El Castillo reflects the Maya’s mastery of architecture and astronomy, symbolizing their deep connection between religious practices and celestial events. Maya Astronomy and the Caracol Observatory The Maya were skilled astronomers who accurately tracked celestial bodies such as the sun, moon, and Venus. The Caracol Observatory in Chichen Itza is a prime example of their astronomical knowledge, with its windows aligned to track Venus's movements. The Maya used their astronomical observations to predict eclipses, track planetary cycles, and plan agricultural and religious activities. Maya Mathematics and the Concept of Zero The Maya developed a sophisticated mathematical system based on vigesimal (base-20) counting. They were among the first civilizations to use the concept of zero, represented by a shell symbol. This allowed for more complex calculations, which were crucial for their advanced calendar systems and architectural feats. Their use of zero predates many other ancient cultures, making it one of their most significant intellectual achievements. Famous People from the civilization and their contributions Kukulkan (also known as Quetzalcoatl) Kukulkan is a prominent deity in Maya mythology, often associated with the feathered serpent. Although a mythological figure, Kukulkan is symbolically significant in Maya culture, representing wisdom, wind, and the link between heaven and earth. His influence is evident in the architectural design of El Castillo (Temple of Kukulkan) at Chichen Itza, which features astronomical alignments that demonstrate the Mayans' advanced understanding of celestial events. Festivals and ceremonies dedicated to Kukulkan were vital to the religious practices and cultural identity of the Maya. Pakal the Great (K'inich Janaab' Pakal) Pakal the Great (reigned 615–683 CE) was one of the most famous rulers of the city-state of Palenque. His reign marked a period of great prosperity and cultural achievements. Pakal oversaw extensive building projects, including the construction of the Temple of the Inscriptions, which served as his burial site and contained intricate carvings and hieroglyphs that recorded his life and accomplishments. Under his leadership, Palenque became a significant center of art and architecture, and Pakal's patronage of the arts contributed to the flourishing of Maya culture. Lady Six Sky (Jasaw Chan K'awiil II): Lady Six Sky was a prominent queen and political leader of the Kaanul dynasty, ruling from the late 7th century CE. She is known for her influential role in establishing and maintaining alliances between city-states and for her military prowess. Her reign is marked by the construction of significant monuments, including the Temple of the Inscriptions at Yaxchilan. Lady Six Sky's leadership was crucial in reinforcing the power and influence of her dynasty, and she is often depicted in Maya art, symbolizing the importance of women in Maya politics and society. Aztec Civilization The Aztec Empire (c. 1345-1521) covered at its greatest extent most of northern Mesoamerica. Aztec warriors were able to dominate their neighbouring states and permit rulers such as Montezuma to impose Aztec ideals and religion across Mexico. Highly accomplished in agriculture and trade, the last of the great Mesoamerican civilizations was also noted for its art and architecture. The Aztec civilization, with its capital city at Tenochtitlán (Mexico City), is actually the most well-documented Mesoamerican civilization with sources including archaeology, native books (codices) and lengthy and detailed accounts from their Spanish conquerors - both by military men and Christian clergy. These latter sources may not always be reliable but the picture we have of the Aztecs, their institutions, religious practices, Aztec warfare and daily life is a rich one and it continues to be constantly expanded with details being added through the endeavours of 21st-century CE archaeologists and scholars. Sometime around 1100 the city-states or altepetl which were spread over central Mexico began to compete with each other for local resources and regional dominance. Each state had its own ruler or tlatoani who led a council of nobles but these small urban centres surrounded by farmland soon sought to expand their wealth and influence so that by c. 1400 several small empires had formed in the Valley of Mexico. Dominant amongst these were Texcoco, capital of the Acholhua region, and Azcapotzalco, capital of the Tepenec. These two empires came face to face in 1428 with the Tepanec War. The Azcapotzalco forces were defeated by an alliance of Texcoco, Tenochtitlan (the capital of the Mexica) and several other smaller cities. Following victory, a Triple Alliance was formed between Texcoco, Tenochtitlan and a rebel Tepanec city, Tlacopan. A campaign of territorial expansion began where the spoils of war - usually in the form of tributes from the conquered - were shared between these three great cities. Over time Tenochtitlan came to dominate the Alliance, its ruler became the supreme ruler - the huey tlatoque ('high king') - and the city established itself as the capital of the Aztec empire. The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán (today beneath Mexico City) on the western shore of Lake Texcoco flourished so that the city could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by the early 16th century, making it the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. These inhabitants were divided into several social strata. At the top were local rulers (teteuhctin), then came nobles (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs (mayeque), and finally slaves (tlacohtin). The strata seem to have been relatively fixed but there is some evidence of movement between them, especially in the lower classes. The Aztec empire, which controlled some 11,000,000 people, had always had to deal with minor rebellions - typically, when new rulers took power at Tenochtitlan - but these had always been swiftly crushed. The tide began to turn, though, when the Aztecs were heavily defeated by the Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo in 1515. With the arrival of the Spanish, some of these rebel states would again seize the opportunity to gain their independence. When the conquistadors finally did arrive from the Old World sailing their floating palaces and led by Hernán Cortés, their initial relations with the leader of the Aztecs, Motecuhzoma II, were friendly and valuable gifts were exchanged. Things turned sour, though, when a small group of Spanish soldiers were killed at Tenochtitlan while Cortés was away at Veracruz. The Aztec warriors, unhappy at Motecuhzoma's passivity, overthrew him and set Cuitlahuac as the new tlatoani. This incident was just what Cortés needed and he returned to the city to relieve the besieged remaining Spanish but was forced to withdraw on 30 June 1520 in what became known as the Noche Triste. Gathering local allies Cortés returned ten months later and in 1521 he laid siege to the city. Lacking food and ravaged by disease, the Aztecs, now led by Cuauhtemoc, finally collapsed on the fateful day of 13 August 1521. Tenochtitlan was sacked and its monuments destroyed. From the ashes rose the new capital of the colony of New Spain and the long line of Mesoamerican civilizations which had stretched right back to the Olmec came to a dramatic and brutal end. Inventions and Contributions: Chinampas (Floating Gardens) The Aztecs developed an ingenious agricultural technique called chinampas, which involved creating small, rectangular, fertile plots of land in shallow lake beds. These "floating gardens" allowed them to grow crops such as maize, beans, and squash year-round, significantly boosting their agricultural productivity. Chinampas were especially used around their capital city, Tenochtitlan, in Lake Texcoco, helping sustain a large population. Tenochtitlan’s Urban Engineering The Aztecs built Tenochtitlan, their capital, on an island in Lake Texcoco, creating one of the largest and most advanced cities of its time. They constructed an intricate system of causeways, canals, and aqueducts to provide fresh water and manage the city's transportation needs. The Tlaxcala aqueduct brought potable water to the city, showcasing their engineering skill in urban planning and infrastructure. Aztec Calendar (Xiuhpohualli and Tonalpohualli) The Aztecs used two interconnected calendar systems: the Xiuhpohualli, a 365-day solar calendar, and the Tonalpohualli, a 260-day ritual calendar. Together, these calendars guided agricultural activities and religious ceremonies. The Sun Stone (Piedra del Sol), often called the "Aztec Calendar Stone," is one of the most famous artifacts representing the calendrical cycles and the Aztec cosmology, illustrating the importance of timekeeping in their culture. Aztec Education System (Calmecac and Telpochcalli) The Aztecs established one of the earliest formal education systems in the Americas. Boys and girls were educated separately but universally, regardless of social status. Calmecac was the school for the children of nobility, where they were trained in writing, astronomy, history, and leadership. Telpochcalli was for commoners, focusing on military training, practical skills, and Aztec culture. This structured system ensured that both noble and common children received an education. Aztec Medicine and Herbal Knowledge The Aztecs had a highly developed medical system that included herbal medicine, surgery, and the use of various natural remedies. Ticitl, or Aztec physicians, used plants such as tlapatl (used to treat pain) and iztacpatli (used for fevers) in their treatments. Their codices, such as the Badianus Manuscript, provide detailed knowledge of their medicinal plants and practices, some of which are still recognized today for their healing properties. Famous People from the civilization and their contributions Emperor Montezuma II (Moctezuma II) Montezuma II (reigned 1502–1520) was one of the most famous Aztec emperors, known for expanding the empire to its greatest extent. Under his rule, the Aztec Empire reached its height in terms of territorial expansion, wealth, and cultural achievements. Montezuma II strengthened the tribute system, increasing the flow of resources to Tenochtitlan, and enhanced trade networks. He also presided over significant construction projects, including the expansion of the Great Temple (Templo Mayor) in Tenochtitlan, which became a central hub of Aztec religious life. Emperor Itzcali (Itzcali or Itzcali Moctezuma) Itzcali, also known as Itzcali Moctezuma (reigned circa 1400s), is credited with significant military conquests that expanded the Aztec Empire. He is known for forging alliances with neighboring city-states, which contributed to the Aztecs' military prowess. Itzcali played a critical role in the establishment of the Triple Alliance between the Aztecs, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, which laid the foundation for the empire's dominance in the region. His leadership during the early expansion helped the Aztecs establish their power in central Mexico. Tlacaelel: Tlacaelel (circa 1398–1480) served as a high priest and a key advisor to several Aztec emperors, including Montezuma II. He was instrumental in transforming the Aztec religious and political landscape. Tlacaelel redefined the Aztec pantheon, promoting the worship of Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and establishing the importance of human sacrifice in Aztec culture. He also played a crucial role in consolidating power and implementing reforms that strengthened the central government, leading to greater administrative efficiency and military organization. Inca Civilization While Peru’s vibrant culture and breathtaking Andean landscapes continue to entice travelers worldwide, the history of the ancient Inca Empire is one of the most alluring draws when opting for a Peru vacation. Whether choosing the popular 4- day Inca Trail trek or a tour of the mesmerizing ruins of Machu Picchu, travelers flock to Peru to immerse themselves in the fascinating history of this mysterious civilization. The Inca Empire, which flourished from approximately 1200 to 1533 AD, was the largest ancient civilization in pre- Columbian America. Arising from the Andean highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century, the Incas established their capital in the city of Cusco, located in modern-day Peru. Through military conquests and peaceful assimilation tactics, the civilization grew to occupy a large territory in the Andes Mountains in what is now western South America. At the height of their power, the Incas ruled a population of approximately 5 to 11 million people. The empire finally fell in the early 16th century after the Spanish Conquest, led by the famous conquistador Francisco Pizarro. The ancient Incas’ official language was Quechua; however, over seven hundred local dialects were spoken, a reflection of the vast territory the empire occupied. Even without a written language, the Incas accomplished incredible engineering feats, including suspension bridges and roads to cross steep Andean valleys. The Incas also constructed large stone buildings without the use of mortar; the pieces fit together so perfect that even a single knife blade couldn’t pass through the junctures. The ancient complex of Machu Picchu, perched on a cliff above the Urubamba Valley, is one of the most magnificent examples of the Incas’ architectural ingenuity and skill. Due to Machu Picchu’s remote location in the highlands of the Peruvian Andes, the Spanish conquistadors did not know of the sanctuary’s existence, leaving it unharmed during the conquest. In addition to the Incas’ complex political system and polytheistic religion, there are many more fascinating facts about the Inca Empire. By choosing to visit some of the numerous Inca sites scattered throughout Peru, such as Cusco and Machu Picchu, travelers are sure to be rewarded with the rich history of this ancient civilization. Inventions and Contributions: Terrace Farming (Andenes) The Incas developed an advanced agricultural technique called andenes, or terraced farming. These terraces were constructed on mountain slopes to maximize arable land in the Andean highlands. By building these terraces, the Incas improved irrigation and prevented soil erosion, enabling them to cultivate crops like potatoes, maize, and quinoa in otherwise inhospitable environments. Road System (Qhapaq Ñan) The Qhapaq Ñan was an extensive network of roads and bridges that spanned over 40,000 kilometers, connecting the vast Inca Empire. This road system facilitated communication, trade, and military movement throughout the empire, crossing difficult terrain like mountains and deserts. Key features included suspension bridges (such as the famous Inca rope bridge over gorges), making travel and control of the empire more efficient. Quipu (Khipu) The quipu (also spelled khipu) was a system of knotted strings used by the Incas for record-keeping. Without a formal written language, the quipu allowed them to record numerical data related to the census, agricultural production, and taxes. Different colors, lengths, and knots on the quipu conveyed various types of information, and it was used by Inca administrators to manage the empire's economy. Machu Picchu The construction of Machu Picchu, a royal estate built for Emperor Pachacuti, is one of the most remarkable architectural feats of the Inca civilization. This city, nestled high in the Andes, exemplifies Inca stone masonry, featuring precisely cut stones that fit together without mortar. Machu Picchu’s design also demonstrates their knowledge of astronomy, with certain structures aligned to astronomical events like the solstices. Inca Medicine and Surgery (Trepanation) The Incas were skilled in medicine, particularly in trepanation, a surgical procedure that involved removing part of the skull to treat head injuries or illnesses. They performed this surgery with remarkable success, as shown by archaeological findings of skulls that healed after the procedure. Inca healers also used various medicinal plants, including coca leaves, as anesthetics and treatments for pain. Famous People from the civilization and their contributions Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui: Pachacuti (1438–1471) is often credited as the founder of the Inca Empire. Under his leadership, the Inca expanded their territory significantly, transforming a small kingdom in the Cuzco Valley into a vast empire that stretched from modern- day Colombia to Chile. He is known for implementing a centralized government, establishing a system of roads (Qhapaq Ñan) to connect the empire, and promoting agricultural innovations such as terrace farming. Pachacuti also initiated major architectural projects, including the construction of Machu Picchuand the expansion of Cusco. Topa Inca Yupanqui: Contributions: Topa Inca Yupanqui (1471–1493), son of Pachacuti, further expanded the Inca Empire, reaching its greatest territorial extent. He is recognized for his military conquests in the regions of Ecuador and Chile, integrating diverse cultures into the empire. Topa Inca also implemented administrative reforms, including the mit'a system, which required labor service from the population to support state projects. Additionally, he was instrumental in promoting trade and enhancing agricultural production through the construction of irrigation systems. Huayna Capac: Huayna Capac (1493–1527) was the last great emperor of the Inca before the Spanish conquest. His reign saw significant consolidation of power and expansion of the empire. He is known for enhancing the Inca economy through the promotion of agriculture and trade, further developing the extensive road network, and fostering cultural integration among the various peoples within the empire. Huayna Capac also undertook ambitious building projects and was a patron of the arts, contributing to the richness of Inca culture. Indus hindu Civilization Also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was a cultural and political entity which flourished in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent between c. 7000 - c. 600 BCE. Its modern name derives from its location in the valley of the Indus River, but it is also commonly referred to as the Indus-Sarasvati Civilization and the Harrapan Civilization. These latter designations come from the Sarasvati River mentioned in Vedic sources, which flowed adjacent to the Indus River, and the ancient city of Harappa in the region, the first one found in the modern era. None of these names derive from any ancient texts because, although scholars generally believe the people of this civilization developed a writing system (known as Indus Script or Harappan Script) it has not yet been deciphered. All three designations are modern constructs, and nothing is definitively known of the origin, development, decline, and fall of the civilization. Even so, modern archaeology has established a probable chronology and periodization: Pre-Harappan – c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE Early Harappan – c. 5500 - 2800 BCE Mature Harappan – c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE Late Harappan – c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE Post Harappan – c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE The Indus Valley Civilization is now often compared with the far more famous cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, but this is a fairly recent development. The discovery of Harappa in 1829 CE was the first indication that any such civilization existed in India, and by that time, Egyptian hieroglyphics had been deciphered, Egyptian and Mesopotamian sites excavated, and cuneiform would soon be translated by the scholar George Smith (l. 1840-1876 CE). Archaeological excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization, therefore, had a significantly late start comparatively, and it is now thought that many of the accomplishments and “firsts” attributed to Egypt and Mesopotamia may actually belong to the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. The two best-known excavated cities of this culture are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (located in modern-day Pakistan), both of which are thought to have once had populations of between 40,000-50,000 people, which is stunning when one realizes that most ancient cities had on average 10,000 people living in them. The total population of the civilization is thought to have been upward of 5 million, and its territory stretched over 900 miles (1,500 km) along the banks of the Indus River and then in all directions outward. Indus Valley Civilization sites have been found near the border of Nepal, in Afghanistan, on the coasts of India, and around Delhi, to name only a few locations. Between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE, the civilization began to decline for unknown reasons. In the early 20th century CE, this was thought to have been caused by an invasion of light-skinned peoples from the north known as Aryans who conquered a dark-skinned people defined by Western scholars as Dravidians. This claim, known as the Aryan Invasion Theory, has been discredited. The Aryans – whose ethnicity is associated with the Iranian Persians – are now believed to have migrated to the region peacefully and blended their culture with that of the indigenous people while the term Dravidian is understood now to refer to anyone, of any ethnicity, who speaks one of the Dravidian languages. Inventions and Contributions: Advanced Urban Planning The cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa exemplify the Indus Valley Civilization's sophisticated approach to urban planning. Streets were laid out in a precise grid pattern, with main roads intersecting at right angles. Residential and commercial areas were carefully organized, showcasing a high level of municipal planning and administrative control, which was rare for ancient civilizations. Drainage and Sanitation Systems One of the most remarkable features of the Indus cities was their advanced drainage system. Homes were equipped with private bathrooms and toilets connected to covered drains that ran along the streets. These drains led to underground sewer systems, such as those found in Mohenjo-Daro, which suggests the Indus people prioritized cleanliness and public health in a way that was unparalleled at the time. The Great Bath The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is one of the earliest public water facilities in human history. This large, well- constructed water tank, lined with bricks and coated with a waterproof layer of bitumen, was likely used for religious or ritual bathing. The construction of the Great Bath reflects the importance of water in social and religious activities, and it is considered one of the earliest examples of a communal pool. Indus Script The Indus script remains one of the civilization’s most intriguing contributions. While it is still undeciphered, it appears on seals, pottery, and tablets. The script consists of various symbols and may represent a form of proto-writing used for trade, religious, or administrative purposes. The use of seals with inscriptions and animal motifs, such as the famous "unicorn" seal, suggests the importance of trade and identity in Indus society. Standardized Weights and Measures The Indus Valley people developed a highly standardized system of weights and measures, which played a crucial role in trade and construction. Archaeologists have found uniform cubical weights made of chert, used to measure quantities of goods. The precise measurements of bricks in buildings across multiple cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro show that these standards were widely adopted, contributing to the efficiency of their society.