Connecting Hemispheres: Chapter 16: People and Empires in the Americas (PDF)

 500–1800 ​ Connecting Hemispheres ​ ChapterPeople 16 ​ and Empires in the Americas ​ ​...

 500–1800 ​ Connecting Hemispheres ​ ChapterPeople 16 ​ and Empires in the Americas ​ ​ 500–1500 438 ​ 439 ​ VIDEOAncient ​ Maya: Power Centers ​ 1 North American Societies ​​ 441 ​ 2 Maya Kings and Cities ​​ 446 ​ 3 The Aztecs Control Central Mexico ​​ 452 ​ 4 The Inca Create a Mountain Empire ​​ 459 ​ Chapter 16 Assessment ​ 466 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Formulating Historical Questions ​ 467 SK1 ​ MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS ​ The Maya ​ 467 MC1 ​ ChapterEuropean 17 ​ Renaissance and Reformation ​ ​ 1300–1600 468 ​ Elizabeth I of England ​ VIDEOHumanism ​ Triggers the Renaissance ​ 469 ​ (page 493) ​ 1 Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance ​​ 471 ​ 2 The Northern Renaissance ​​ 480 ​ 3 Luther Leads the Reformation ​​ 488 ​ 4 The Reformation Continues ​​ 495 ​ Chapter 17 Assessment ​ 502 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Finding Main Ideas ​ 503 SK1 ​ ChapterThe 18Muslim ​ World Expands ​ ​ 1300–1700 504 ​ 505 ​ VIDEOHagia ​ Sophia ​ 1 The Ottomans Build a Vast Empire ​​ 507 ​ 2 Cultural Blending ​ CASE STUDY:The ​Safavid Empire ​ 512 ​ 3 The Mughal Empire in India ​​ 516 ​ Chapter 18 Assessment ​ 524 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Categorizing ​ 525 SK1 ​ Safavid shah (page 506) ​ xii ​ ChapterAn 19Age ​ of Explorations and Isolation ​ ​ 1400–1800 526 ​ 527 ​ VIDEOMing ​ Dynasty Wall Building ​ 1 Europeans Explore the East ​​ 529 ​ 2 China Limits European Contacts ​​ 536 ​ 3 Japan Returns to Isolation ​​ 542 ​ Chapter 19 Assessment ​ 548 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Creating Thematic Maps ​ 549 SK1 ​ ChapterThe 20 Atlantic ​ World ​ 1492–1800 ​ 550 ​ 551 ​ VIDEOGodspeed ​ to Jamestown ​ 1 Spain Builds an American Empire ​​ 553 ​ 2 European Nations Settle North America ​​ 561 ​ Early globe (page 529) ​ 3 The Atlantic Slave Trade ​​ 566 ​ 4 The Columbian Exchange and Global Trade ​​ 571 ​ Chapter 20 Assessment ​ 576 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Identifying Bias ​ 577 SK1 ​ MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS ​ de Leon ​ Ponce 577 MC1 ​ UNIT 4 REVIEW COMPARING AND CONTRASTING: Methods of Government 578 ​ ​ xiii ​ 436 ​  Seeking new land and new markets, European ​ explorers sailed around the world. This painting by ​ Theodore Gudin depicts French explorer ​ La Salle’s Louisiana expedition of 1684. ​ Methods of Government ​ In Unit 4, you will learn about different methods of ruling a ​ nation or empire. At the end of the unit, you will have a chance ​ to compare and contrast the governments you have studied. ​ (See pages 578–583.) ​ 437 ​  People and ​Empires ​ in the Americas, ​500–1500 ​ Essential Question ​ Previewing Themes ​ What empires and peoples existed ​ in the Americas before the arrivalCULTURAL of ​ INTERACTION Cultures in the Americas had frequent ​​ Europeans? ​ contact across distance and time. Both conquest and trade brought ​ different cultures together. ​ Texas Essential KnowlegeGeography ​ In which part of the Americas do you think the greatest ​​ cultural interaction occurred? Why? ​ and Skills ​ 6A, 15A, 16C, 21A, 26B, 27B ​ POWER AND AUTHORITY Societies in the Americas ranged from small ​​ SECTIONNorth1 American Societies tribal ​ bands to immense empires. Warrior-kings or priest-kings ruled ​ Main Idea ​ Complex North American ​ societies were linked to each other ​ most of these empires. ​ through culture and economics. ​ Geography Which empire covered the greatest geographic area? ​​ SECTIONMaya 2 Kings and Cities ​ Main Idea The​ Maya developed a ​ RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Religion was a powerful force in ​​ highly complex civilization based onthe ​ Americas. Many societies combined religious and state rule. Much ​ city-states and elaborate religious ​ of their art and architecture concerned the gods and the need to ​ practices. ​ please them. ​ SECTIONThe 3 Aztecs Control ​ Geography The Aztecs adopted the gods of other Mesoamerican cultures. ​​ Central Mexico ​ Why do you think this happened? ​ Main Idea ​ Through alliances and ​ conquest, the Aztecs created a powerful ​ empire in what is today Mexico. ​ SECTION T 4he Inca Create ​ a Mountain Empire ​ Main Idea The ​ Inca built a vast empire ​ supported by taxes, governed by a ​ bureaucracy, and linked by extensive ​ road systems. ​ 438 ​ 439 ​  What does this headdress tell you ​ about the people who made it? ​ You are preparing an exhibit for your local history museum on an early Native American ​ society—one with no written language. In many ways, you must act like ​ a detective. You sift through the evidence for clues and then draw conclusions based ​ on your findings. Imagine you want to include this headdress in the exhibit. Study ​ the headdress carefully to see how much you can learn about the Kwakiutl, ​ the people who made it. ​ ​▲ This headdress was used by the Kwakiutl in religious ceremonies. ​ Carved of red cedar and painted, it shows a thunderbird, the highest ​ of the spirits in the Kwakiutl religion. Like a huge eagle, the thunder ​ bird flew high in the sky. When it was hungry, it swooped down to ​ catch and eat killer whales. ​ E XA M I N I N G t h e ​ I S S U E S​ ​ What does the figure represented by the headdress and the ​​ materials used to make it tell you about Kwakiutl culture? ​ How else might you find out information about this culture? ​ Discuss these questions with your classmates. Think about the ​ kinds of information you have learned about other cultures that did ​ not have a written language. As you read this chapter, examine the ​ symbolic objects made by different peoples of the Americas. Think ​ about what these objects reveal about the various cultures. ​ 440 Chapter 16 ​​  1​ TEKS 15A, 16C ​ North American Societies ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ CULTURAL INTERACTION ​ Traditions and ideas from these ​ potlatch ​ Mississippian cultures became part of the cultures ​ Anasazi ​ Iroquois ​ ​ Complex North American societies ​ were linked to each other through of ​ North America. ​ pueblo ​ totem ​ culture and economics. ​ SETTING THE STAGEBetween ​ 40,000 and 12,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers ​ migrated across the Bering Strait land bridge from Asia and began to populate the ​ Americas. Migrating southward, those first Americans reached the southern tip ​ of South America by somewhere between 12,000 and 7000 B.C. At the same time, ​ they began to spread out east and west across North America. Over the centuries, ​ the early North American peoples adapted to their environment, creating a very ​ diverse set of cultures. ​ Complex Societies in the West ​ In some ways, the early North American cultures were less developed than ​ those of South America and Mesoamerica. The North American groups cre- ​ ated no great empires. They left few ruins as spectacular Use asthethose online graphic organizer ​ ofonancient to take notes the ​ ​ Mexico or Peru. Nevertheless, the first peoples of North Native AmericaAmericansdid of the create ​ ​ complex societies. These societies were able to conduct Northwest long-distance trade and the Southwest. ​ ​ and construct magnificent buildings. ​ Cultures of Abundance ​ The Pacific Northwest—from Oregon to Alaska—was ​ rich in resources and supported a sizable population. To the Kwakiutl, Nootka, ​ and Haida peoples, the most important resource was the sea. (See the map on ​ page 442.) They hunted whales in canoes. Some canoes were large enough to ​ carry at least 15 people. In addition to the many resources of the sea, the coastal ​ forest provided plentiful food. In this abundant environment, the Northwest ​ Coast tribes developed societies in which differences in wealth created social ​ classes. Families displayed their rank and prosperity in an elaborate ceremony ​ potlatch called the ​ LACH).In this ceremony, ​ (PAHT they gave food, drink, and gifts to the community. ​ Accomplished Builders The dry,​ desert lands of the Southwest were a much ​ harsher environment than the temperate Pacific coastlands. However, as ​ early as 1500 B.C., the peoples of the Southwest were beginning to farm the ​ land. Among the most successful of these early farmers were the Hohokam ​ (huh HOH kuhm) of central Arizona. (See the map on page 439.) They used ​ irrigation to produce harvests of corn, beans, and squash. Their use of pottery ​ rather than baskets, as well as certain religious rituals, showed contact with ​ Mesoamerican peoples to the south. ​ People and Empires in the Americas 441​  GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting ​ Maps ​ 1. Region Which Native American culture groups had the ​ largest number of tribes? ​ 2. Human-Environment Interaction In which culture areas ​ would movement of trade goods be made easier by river and ​ lake connections? ​ 442 Chapter 16​​  A people to the north—the Anasazi ​ (AH nuh SAH zee)—also influenced the ​ Hohokam. They lived in the Four Corners ​ region, where the present-day states of Utah, ​ Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico meet. ​ The Anasazi built impressive cliff dwellings, ​ such as the ones at Mesa Verde, Colorado. ​ These large houses were built on top of ​ mesas—flat-topped hills—or in shallow ​ caves in the sheer walls of deep canyons. By ​ the A.D. 900s, the Anasazi were living in ​ pueblos (PWEHB lohs), villages of large, ​​ apartment-style compounds made of stone ​ and adobe, or sun-baked clay. ​ The largest Anasazi pueblo, begun ​ around A.D. 900, was Pueblo Bonito, a ​ Spanish name meaning “beautiful village.” ​ Its construction required a high degree of ​ social organization and inventiveness. The ​ Anasazi relied on human labor to quarry ​ sandstone from the canyon walls and move ​ it to the site. Skilled builders then used a ​ mudlike mortar to construct walls up to five ​ stories high. Windows were small to keep ​ out the burning sun. When completed, Pueblo Bonito probably ​▲ housed about Cliff Palace, ​ 1,000 ​ Mesa of people and contained more than 600 rooms. In addition, a number Verde, had ​ underground or ​ 217 rooms partly underground ceremonial chambers called kivas (KEE vuhs) wereandused ​ for a​ 23 kivas. ​ variety of religious practices. ​ Many Anasazi pueblos were abandoned around 1200, possibly because of a ​ prolonged drought. The descendants of the Anasazi, the Pueblo peoples, continued ​ many of their customs. Pueblo groups like the Hopi and Zuni used kivas for reli- ​ gious ceremonies. They also created beautiful pottery and woven blankets. They ​ traded these, along with corn and other farm products, with Plains Indians to the ​ east, who supplied bison meat and hides. These nomadic Plains tribes eventually ​ became known by such names as the Comanche, Kiowa, and Apache. ​ Mound Builders and Other Woodland Cultures ​ Beyond the Great Plains, in the woodlands east of the Mississippi River, other ​ ancient peoples—the Mound Builders—were creating their own unique tradi- ​ tions. (See the map on page 439.) Beginning around 700 B.C., a culture known as ​ the Adena began to build huge earthen mounds in which they buried their dead. ​ Mounds that held the bodies of tribal leaders often were filled with gifts, such as ​ finely crafted copper and stone objects. ​ Some 500 years later, the Hopewell culture also began building burial mounds. ​ Their mounds were much larger and more plentiful than those of the Adena. ​ Some of the Hopewell mounds may have been used for purposes other than ​ burials. For example, the Great Serpent Mound, near Hillsboro, Ohio, may have ​ played a part in Hopewell religious ceremonies. ​ The last Mound Builder culture, the Mississippian​ ​,​ lasted from around A.D. 800 ​ until the arrival of Europeans in the 1500s. These people created thriving villages ​ based on farming and trade. Between 1000 and 1200, perhaps as many as 30,000 ​ People and Empires in the Americas 443​ ​▲ Great Serpent ​ people lived at Cahokia (kuh HOH kee uh), the leading site of Mississippian cul- ​ Mound runs some ​ 1,300 feet along ​ ture. Cahokia was led by priest-rulers, who regulated farming activities. The heart ​ its coils and is ​ of the community was a 100-foot-high, flat-topped earthen pyramid, which was ​ between 4 and ​ crowned by a wooden temple. ​ 5 feet high. ​ These Mississippian lands were located in a crossroads region between east and ​ west. They enjoyed easy transportation on the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. Items ​ found in burial mounds show that the Mississippians had traded with peoples in the West and, possibly, Mesoamerica. Similar evidence shows that they also came into ​ contact with peoples from the Northeast. ​ Northeastern Tribes BuildThe Alliances ​ northeastern woodlands tribes devel- ​ oped a variety of cultures. The woodlands peoples often clashed with each other ​ over land. In some areas, tribes formed political alliances to ensure protection of ​ tribal lands. The best example of a political Iroquois ​ the ​ alliance was (IHR uh KWOY), a group of tribes speaking related languages Drawing living in ​ the eastern ​ Conclusions Great Lakes region. In the late 1500s, five of these tribes in upper New York—the​ ​ Of what value ​ Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca—formed the wouldIroquois League. a political alliance ​ ​ According to legend, Chief Hiawatha helped to create this league. His goal be to an individual tribe? ​ was to ​ promote joint defense and cooperation among the tribes. ​ Cultural Connections ​ The Iroquois alliance was a notable example of a political link among early ​ North American peoples. For the most part, however, the connections between ​ native North Americans were economic and cultural. They traded, had similar ​ religious beliefs, and shared social patterns. ​ Trading Networks Tie Tribes Together Trade was a major factor linking the ​​ peoples of North America. Along the Columbia River in Oregon, the Chinook peo- ​ ple established a lively marketplace that brought together trade goods from all ​ over the West. And the Mississippian trade network stretched from the Rocky ​ Mountains to the Atlantic coast and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. ​ Religion Shapes Views of Life Another feature that linked early Americans was ​​ their religious beliefs. Nearly all native North Americans believed that the world ​ around them was filled with nature spirits. Most Native Americans recognized a ​ number of sacred spirits. Some groups held up one supreme being, or Great ​ Spirit, above all others. North American peoples believed that the spirits gave ​ them rituals and customs to guide them in their lives and to satisfy their basic ​ needs. If people practiced these rituals, they would live in peace and harmony. ​ 444 Chapter 16 ​​  Native American religious beliefs also included great ​ respect for the land as the source of life. Native Americans ​ used the land but tried to alter it as little as possible. The land ​ was sacred, not something that could be bought andIroquois sold. Women ​ ​ Later, when Europeans claimed land in North America, Iroquois society thewas ​ matrilineal. This ​ issue of land ownership created conflict. ​ means that all Iroquois traced ​ their descent through their female ​ Shared Social Patterns ​ was the basis for social The family ​ Clans of the mother ​ ancestors. organization for Native Americans. Generally, the familyproperty, controlled unit ​ held ceremonies, ​ was the extended family, including parents, children,and determined grand-official ​ titles. ​ parents, and other close relatives. Some tribes further The ability to grant organ- ​ titles to men ​ was handed down from mother to ​ ized families into clans, groups of families descended daughter.from a ​ important title ​ The most common ancestor. In some tribes, clan members given livedtotogether men was that ​ of “sachem, ” ​ in large houses or groups of houses. ​ the peace, or civil, chief. ​ Common among Native American clans was the A council use ofofsachems ​ met once a ​ totems (TOH tuhmz). The term refers to a natural yearobject to decide on war with ​ ​ and peace and ​ otherThe which an individual, clan, or group identifies itself. important totemmatters. ​ Since ​ was used as a symbol of the unity of a group orsachems could not go to war, they ​ clan. It also ​ appointed warriors to lead a war ​ helped define certain behaviors and the social relationships party. Thus, in aof way ​ women had a say ​ a group. The term comes from an Ojibwa word, inbut refers warfare to aIroquois in the ​ tribes. ​ cultural practice found throughout the Americas. For example, ​ Northwestern peoples displayed totem symbols on masks, ​ Making ​ boats, and huge poles set in front of their houses. Others used totem symbols in ritu- ​ Inferences ​ als or dances associated with important group events such as marriages, the naming ​ What artificial sym- of ​ children, or the planting or harvesting of crops. ​ bols are used by nations ​ There were hundreds of different patterns of Native American life in North ​ or organ izations in a way ​ similar to totems? ​ America. Some societies were small and dealt with life in a limited region of the ​ vast North American continent. Other groups were much larger, and were linked ​ by trade and culture to other groups in North America and Meso america. As you ​ will learn in Section 2, peoples in Mesoamerica and South America also lived in ​ societies that varied from simple to complex. Three of these cultures—the Maya, ​ the Aztec, and the Incan—would develop very sophisticated ways of life. ​ SECTION ​ 1 ​ ASSESSMENT ​ TERMS & NAMES 1. F​ or each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. ​ potlatch ​ Anasazi ​ pueblo ​ Mississippian ​ Iroquois ​ totem ​ USING YOUR NOTES ​ MAIN IDEAS ​ CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING ​ 2.How ​ did environment affect3. What ​ was the most important ​ 6. ANALYZING Why might MOTIVES ​ the people of the ​ the development of the ​ resource for the peoples of theNorthwest ​ consider the potlatch to be a good way to ​ cultures of the Northwest ​ Northwest? Why? ​ signal social standing and wealth? ​ Coast and the Southwest? 4.​ For ​ what purpose did the ​ 7. ANALYZING CAUSES Why might ​ location have been ​ Mound Builder cultures use ​ important to the power and wealth of the Mississippian ​ earthen mounds? ​ culture? ​ Northwest Coast ​ 5.Why ​ did the tribes of upper 8. ​ COMPARING In what ​ ways did the peoples of North ​ Both ​ New York form a political ​ America share similar cultural patterns? ​ Southwest ​ alliance? ​ Write a brief 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION ​​ ​ essaydetailing ​ the evidence that shows how societies in ​ North America interacted with each other. ​ MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY WRITING AN ILLUSTRATED REPORT​ ​ Research a Native American group from the map in this section. Focus on the physical geography as shown on the map ​ and on how the group lived. In an illustrated report, ​draw conclusions about the relationship of physical geography to the historical development of that group and region. ​ People and Empires in the Americas 445 ​​  2​ TEKS 6A, 15A, 16C ​ Maya Kings and Cities ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL ​ Descendants of the Maya still ​ Tikal ​ codex ​ SYSTEMS ​ developed a ​ occupy the same territory. ​ The Maya glyph ​ Popol Vuh ​ highly complex civilization based on ​ city-states and elaborate religious ​ practices. ​ SETTING THE STAGE ​ America and Mexico, other civilizations were ​ In Central developing. The Olmecs and Zapotecs were fading in importance, but other ​ peoples were borrowing and refining some of their ideas. Among those ideas ​ were writing systems, ritual ball courts, ceremonial cities, and an elite ruling ​ class. However, exactly who borrowed what from whom is seldom clear. ​ Maya Create City-States ​ The homeland of the Maya stretched from southern Mexico into northern ​ Use the graphic organizer ​ Central Amer ica. This area includes a highland region and a lowland region. ​ online to take notes on the ​ The lowlands lie to the north. They include the dry scrub forest of the Yucatán ​ major features of the Maya ​ (yoo kuh TAN) Penin sula and the dense, steamy jungles of southeastern Mexico civilization. ​ and northern Guatemala. The highlands are further south—a range of cool, ​ cloud-wreathed mountains that stretch from southern Mexico to El Salvador. ​ While the Olmec were building their civilization along the Gulf Coast in the ​ period from 1200 B.C. to 400 B.C., the Maya were also evolving. (See Chapter 9.) ​ They took on Olmec influences, blending these with local customs. By A.D. 250, ​ Maya culture had burst forth in a flourishing civilization. ​ ▼ Maya ​ jade ​ death mask, ​ Urban Centers ​ The period from A.D. 250 to 900 is known as the ​ seventh ​ Classic Period of Maya civilization. During this time, the Mayacentury ​A.D. ​​ built spectacular citiesTikal ​ as ​ such(tee KAHl), a major center ​ in northern Guatemala. Other impor tant sites included Copán, ​ Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichén Itzá (chee CHEHN ee TSAH). ​ (See the map on page 447.) Each of these was an independent ​ city-state, ruled by a god-king and serving as a center for reli- ​ gious ceremonies and trade. Maya cities featured giant pyramids, ​ temples, palaces, and elaborate stone carvings dedicated to the ​ gods and to important rulers. Tens of thousands of people lived in ​ residential areas surrounding the city center, which bustled with ​ activity. ​ Archaeologists have identified at least 50 major Maya sites, all ​ with monumental architecture. For example, Temple IV pyramid ​ at Tikal stretched 212 feet into the jungle sky. In addition to ​ temples and pyramids, each Maya city featured a ball court. In ​ 446 Chapter 16 ​​  this stone-sided playing field, the Maya ​ played a game that had religious and ​ political significance. The Maya believed ​ the playing of this game would maintain ​ Drawing ​ the cycles of the sun and moon and bring ​ Conclusions ​ life-giving rains. ​ What does the abil- ​ ity to construct complex Agriculture ​ and Trade Support Cities ​ buildings reveal about a Although ​ the Maya city-states were ​ society? ​ independent of each other, they were ​ linked through alliances and trade. ​ Cities exchanged their local products ​ such as salt, flint, feathers, shells, and ​ honey. They also traded craft goods like ​ cotton textiles and jade ornaments. ​ While the Maya did not have a uniform ​ currency, cacao (chocolate) beans some- ​ times served as one. ​ As in the rest of Mesoamerica, agri- ​ culture—particularly the growing of ​ maize, beans, and squash—provided the ​ basis for Maya life. For years, experts ​ assumed that the Maya practiced slash- ​ GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps ​ and-burn agriculture. This method ​ 1. Region ​Which civilization occupied the Yucatán Peninsula? ​ involves farmers clearing the land 2.by Region ​ other civilization areas were eventually ​ ​ What burning existing vegetation and planting incorporated ​ into the Aztec area? ​ crops in the ashes. Evidence now shows, ​ however, that the Maya also developed more sophisticated methods, including ​ planting on raised beds above swamps and on hillside terraces. ​ Kingdoms Built on Dynasties Successful​ farming methods led to the accumula- ​ tion of wealth and the development of social classes. The noble class, which ​ included priests and the leading warriors, occupied the top rung of Maya society. ​ Below them came merchants and those with specialized knowledge, such as skilled ​ artisans. Finally, at the bottom, came the peasant majority. ​ The Maya king sat at the top of this class structure. He was regarded as a holy ​ figure, and his position was hereditary. When he died, he passed the throne on to ​ his eldest son. Other sons of the ruler might expect to join the priesthood. ​ Religion Shapes Maya Life ​ Religion influenced most aspects of Maya life. The Maya believed in many gods. ​ There were gods of corn, of death, of rain, and of war. Gods could be good or evil, ​ and sometimes both. Gods also were associated with the four directions and with dif- ​ ferent colors: white for north, black for west, yellow for south, red for east, and green ​ in the center. The Maya believed that each day was a living god whose behavior could ​ be predicted with the help of a system of calendars. ​ Religious Practices ​ The Maya worshiped their gods in various ways. They prayed ​ and made offerings of food, flowers, and incense. They also pierced and cut their ​ bodies and offered their blood, believing that this would nourish the gods. ​ Sometimes the Maya even carried out human sacrifice, usually of captured ene- ​ mies. At Chichén Itzá, they threw captives into a deep sinkhole lake, called a ​ cenote (say NO tay), along with gold, jade, and other offerings. The Maya believed ​ People and Empires in the Americas 447​  that human sacrifice pleased the gods and kept the world in balance. ​ Nevertheless, the Maya’s use of sacrifice never reached the extremes of some other ​ Mesoamerican peoples. ​ Math and Religion Maya ​religious beliefs also led to the development of the ​ calendar, mathematics, and astronomy. The Maya believed that time was a burden ​ carried on the back of a god. At the end of a day, month, or year, one god would ​ lay the burden down and another would pick it up. A day would be lucky or ​ unlucky, depending on the nature of the god. So it was very important to have an ​ accurate calendar to know which god was in charge of the day. ​ The Maya developed a 260-day religious calendar, which consisted of thirteen ​ 20-day months. A second 365-day solar calendar consisted of eighteen 20-day ​ months, with a separate period of 5 days at the end. The two calendars were linked ​ together like meshed gears so that any given day could be identified in both cycles. ​ The calendar helped identify the best times to plant crops, attack enemies, and ​ crown new rulers. ​ The Maya based their calendar on careful observation of the planets, sun, and ​ moon. Highly skilled Maya astronomers and mathematicians calculated the solar ​ year at 365.2420 days. This is only.0002 of a day short of the figure generally ​ accepted today! The Maya astronomers were able to attain such great precision by ​ using a math system that included the concept of zero. The Maya used a shell sym- ​ bol for zero, dots for the numbers one to four, and a bar for five. Making The​ Maya num- ​ ber system was a base-20 system. They used the numerical system Inferences primarily ​ for ​ calendar and astronomical work. ​ How are math, ​ Written Language Preserves TheHistory ​ developed the mostastronomy, Maya also and calendars ​ advanced related? ​ ​ writing system in the ancient Americas. Maya writing consisted of about 800 ​ glyphs hieroglyphic symbols, ​​ or(glihfs). Some of these glyphs stood for whole ​ words, and others represented syllables. The Maya used their writing system to ​ record important historical events, carving their glyphs in stone or recording them ​ in a bark-paper book knowncodex as ​a ​ DEHKS (KOH ). only three of these ancient ​ books have survived. ​ other original books telling of Maya history and customs do exist, however. ​ Maya peoples wrote down their history after the arrival of the Spanish. The most ​ famous of these books, the Popol Vuh ​(POH pohl VOO), recounts the Highland ​ Maya’s version of the story of creation. “Before the world was created, Calm and ​ ▼ A detail from ​​ Silence were the great kings that ruled,” reads the first sentence the Mayain Codexthe​ book. ​ “Nothing existed, there was nothing.” ​ Troano ​ PRIMARY SOURCE ​ Thus let it be done! Let the ​ emptiness be filled! Let the water ​ recede and make a void, let the ​ earth appear and become solid; ​ let it be done. Thus they spoke. Let ​ there be light, let there be dawn ​ in the sky and on the earth! There ​ shall be neither glory nor grandeur ​ in our creation and formation until ​ the human being is made, man is ​ formed. So they spoke. ​ Then the earth was created by ​ them. So it was, in truth, that they ​ created the earth. Earth! they said, ​ and instantly it was made. ​ From the Popol Vuh ​ 448 Chapter 16 ​​  Rise and Fall of the Maya ​ Traits of ​ Strength LeadingWeakness ​ Leading ​ Civilization ​ to Power ​ to Decline ​ Religious beliefs and ​ United culture that is loyal Many ​ physical and human ​ theocracy ​ to the king ​ resources funneled into ​ religious activities ​ Independent city-states ​Wealthy and prosperous Frequent ​ warfare occurs ​ urban centers ​ between city-states ​ Intensive agriculture ​ Production of more food Population ​ growth creates ​ feeds a larger populationneed ​ for more land ​ SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts​​ 1. recognizing effects ​Which trait aids in building a sense of loyalty to the ruler?​ ​ 2. drawing conclusions ​How can intensive agriculture be both a strength and a weakness? ​​ Mysterious Maya Decline ​ The remarkable history of the Maya ended in mystery. In the late 800s, the Maya ​ suddenly abandoned many of their cities. Invaders from the north, the Toltec, ​ moved into the lands occupied by the Maya. These warlike peoples from central ​ Mexico changed the culture. The high civilization of Maya cities like Tikal and ​ Copán disappeared. ​ No one knows exactly why this happened, though experts offer several overlap­​ ping theories. By the 700s, warfare had broken out among the various Maya city­­​ states. Increased warfare disrupted trade and produced economic hardship. In ​ addition, population growth and over­farming may have damaged the environment, ​ and this led to food shortages, famine, and disease. By the time the Spanish arrived ​ ANALYZING CAUSESin ​ the early 1500s, the Maya were divided into small, weak city­states that gave lit­​ Why did the Maya ​ tle hint of their former glory. ​ civilization go into ​ As the Maya civilization faded, other peoples of Mesoamerica were growing in ​ decline? ​ strength and sophistication. Like the Maya, these peoples would trace some of their ​ ancestry to the Olmec. Eventually, these people would dominate the Valley of ​ Mexico and lands beyond it, as you will learn in Section 3. ​ SECTION ​ 2 ​ ASSESSMENT ​ TERMS & NAMES 1. F​ or each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. ​ Tikal ​ glyph ​ codex ​ Popol Vuh ​ USING YOUR NOTES ​ MAIN IDEAS ​ CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING ​ 2. How do the characteristics3.ofWhat ​ was the basis of Maya 6. RECOGNIZING life? ​​ Why was EFFECTS ​ trade important to the ​ Maya civilization compare 4.​ Why was the calendar ​ Maya civilization? ​ with the characteristics of a​​ important for the Maya ​ 7. SYNTHESIZING How ​were Maya astronomy, mathematics, ​ typical civilization? ​ religion? ​ and the calendar connected? ​ 5. What three explanations have 8. ​ANALYZING CAUSES Which ​of the causes for the fall of ​ been given for the collapse of ​the Maya do you think was most important? Explain. ​ the Maya civilization? ​ 9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Imagine ​ that you are a reporter visiting Maya city-states. Write a ​ one-pagenews ​ article that​ describes various aspects of the ​ Maya religion. ​ MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY CREATING A MAP ​ ​ Use the Internet to conduct research on the locations of major Maya settlements and of cenotes, ​the sinkhole wells ​ on which the Maya depended for water. Create a thematic map ​showing the locations of cities and ​cenotes. ​Draw a ​ conclusion about the relationship between geography and the historical development of the Maya region. ​ People and Empires in the Americas 449​ Maya Architecture ​ Maya architects and architectural engineers created beautiful and ​ monumental structures. The buildings are artistic in structure and in ​ ornamentation. The style and complexity of the ornamentation varies by ​ region, but narrative, ceremonial, and celestial themes are common. ​ Archaeologists and tourists alike are still awed by Maya architecture. ​ These large structures seem to be designed for ceremonial or ​ Detailing religious purposes and dominate the landscapes of the cities. The most ​​ recognizable structures are the pyramids, but there is muchOnemore to the ​ of Maya architecture is ​ characteristic artful Maya architecture. ​ the exterior and interior ornamental detailing. ​ This two-headed jaguar throne was found at ​ Uxmal. It represents the jaguar god of the ​ underworld, one of the many Maya gods. An ​ RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for​​ ancient Maya manuscript lists over 160 gods. ​ more on Maya architecture. ​ Stele ​ A stele (STEE lee) is an inscribed ​ or carved marker that is often ​ used to mark special dates or to ​ mark important buildings. This ​ stele is in the Maya city of Copán ​ and is part of a series of finely ​ carved commemorative steles in ​ the great plaza. The 13th king is ​ represented on most of the steles ​ in ceremonial clothing. ​ 450 ​  Ball Court ​ Ball courts were a feature of ancient Maya cities. The games held deep religious significance, and the ​ same artistic detail is found in the ball courts as in other religious structures. The court shown here is ​ at Chichén Itzá in modern Mexico. It is 545 feet long and 223 feet wide, and is the largest in the ​ Americas. The ornate hoop (above left) is 20 feet off the ground. ​ The exact rules and method of scoring the game are unknown. However, inscriptions indicate ​ that players could not use their hands or feet to move a solid rubber ball, and that members of the ​ losing team might be sacrificed by beheading. ​ Pyramid ​ Archaeologists have found pyramids at many Maya cities. Pyramids were ​ religious structures and, as in Egypt, could be used as tombs. The pyramid ​ shown here is known as Temple I in the Maya city of Tikal. It is the tomb of Ha ​ Sawa Chaan K’awil, a Tikal ruler. The pyramid is about 160 feet tall. Another ​ pyramid in the city is 212 feet tall. In fact, the Tikal pyramids were the ​ tallest structures in the Americas until 1903, when the Flatiron ​ Building was built in New York City. ​ 1. Making Inferences What does the ​ size and ornamentation of Maya ​ architecture indicate about their ​ society? ​ 2. Comparing and Contrasting What ​ are some examples of large-scale ​ architecture in the United States? ​ What do they indicate about our ​ culture? ​ 451 ​  3​ TEKS 6A, 15A ​ The Aztecs Control Central Mexico ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ POWER AND AUTHORITY ​ time period saw the origins This obsidian ​ ​ ​ Triple Alliance ​ Through alliances and conquest, theof​ one of the 20th century’s most Quetzalcoatl ​ Montezuma II ​ Aztecs created a powerful empire inpopulous ​ cities, Mexico City. ​ Mexico. ​ SETTING THE STAGE ​ Maya were developing their civilization to the ​ While the south, other high cultures were evolving in central Mexico. Some of the most ​ important developments took place in and around the Valley of Mexico. This ​ valley, where modern Mexico City is located, eventually became the site of the ​ greatest empire of Mesoamerica, the Aztec. The Aztecs were preceded by two ​ other important civilizations that traced their ancestry to the Olmec and Zapotec. ​ You learned about the Olmec and Zapotec in Chapter 9. ​ The Valley of Mexico ​ The Valley of Mexico, a mountain basin about 7,500 feet above sea level, served ​ Use the graphic organizer ​ as the home base of several powerful cultures. The valley had several large, shal- ​ online to take notes on the ​ low lakes at its center, accessible resources, and fertile soil. These advantages ​ establishment and growth ofattracted ​ the people of Teotihuacán TAY oh TEE wah KAHN) ( and the Toltecs. ​ ​ ▼Quetzalcoatl ​ the Aztec Empire. ​ They settled in the valley and developed advanced civilizations thatforcontrolled was a god ​ ​ much of the area. (See the map on page 447.) ​ many ancient ​ Mexican ​ An Early City-State ​ major civilization of central Mexico The first was ​ ​ civilizations. Teotihuacán, a city-state whose ruins lie just outside Mexico City. In the first ​ century A.D., villagers at this site began to plan and ​ construct a monumental city, even larger than Monte ​ Albán, in Oaxaca. ​ At its peak in the sixth century, Teotihuacán ​ had a population of between 150,000 and 200,000 ​ people, making it one of the largest cities in the ​ world at the time. The heart of the city was a central ​ avenue lined with more than 20 pyramids dedicated ​ to various gods. The biggest of these was the giant ​ Pyramid of the Sun. This imposing building stood ​ more than 200 feet tall and measured close to 3,000 ​ feet around its base. The people of Teotihuacán lived ​ in apartment-block buildings in the area around the ​ central avenue. ​ Teotihuacán became the center of a thriving trade ​ network that extended far into Central America. The ​ 452 Chapter 16​ ​  city’s most valuable trade item was obsidian ​(ahb SIHD ee uhn),▲ The Pyramid a green ​ Sun of the ​ or black ​ (left ​ ​ volcanic glass found in the Valley of Mexico and used to make razor-sharp weapons. There is no evidence that Teotihuacán conquered itsbackground) neighbors dominates ​ ​ or tried to ​ create an empire. However, evidence of art styles and religious beliefs from Teotihuacán’s ​ ​ Teotihuacán have been found throughout Mesoamerica. ​ main highway, ​ the Avenue After centuries of growth, the city abruptly declined. Historians believeof ​ this ​ the Dead. ​ decline was due either to an invasion by outside forces or conflict among the city’s ​ ruling classes. Regardless of the causes, the city was virtually abandoned by 750. ​ The vast ruins astonished later settlers in the area, who named the site Teotihuacán, ​ which means “City of the Gods.” ​ Toltecs Take After Over the ​ fall of Teotihuacán, no single culture dominated central ​ Mexico for decades. Then around 900, a new people—the Toltecs—rose to power. ​ For the next three centuries, the Toltecs ruled over the heart of Mexico from their ​ capital at Tula. (See the map on page 447.) Like other Mesoamericans, they built ​ pyramids and temples. They also carved tall pillars in the shape of armed warriors. ​ In fact, the Toltecs were an extremely warlike people whose empire was based ​ on conquest. They worshiped a fierce war god who demanded blood and human ​ sacrifice from his followers. Sometime after 1000, a Toltec ruler named Topiltzin ​ (toh PEELT zeen) tried to change the Toltec religion. He called on the Toltec peo- ​ ple to end the practice of human sacrifice. He also encouraged them to worship a ​ different god, Quetzalcoatl ​(keht SAHL koh AHT uhl), or the Feathered Serpent. ​ Followers of the war god rebelled, however, forcing Topiltzin and his followers into ​ Making ​ exile on the Yucatán peninsula. There, they greatly influenced late-Mayan culture. ​ Inferences ​ After Topiltzin’s exile, Toltec power began to decline. By the early 1200s, their ​ Why might the ​ reign over the Valley of Mexico had ended. ​ followers of the war god ​ In time, Topiltzin and Quetzalcoatl became one in the legends of the people of ​ rebel against Topiltzin? ​ the Valley of Mexico. According to these legends, after his exile from Tula, the god ​ traveled east, crossing the sea on a raft of snakes. He would return one day, bring- ​ ing a new reign of light and peace. The story of Quetzalcoatl would come back to ​ haunt the greatest empire of Mexico, the Aztecs. ​ The Aztec Empire ​ The Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico around a.d. 1200. The valley contained ​ a number of small city-states that had survived the collapse of Toltec rule. The ​ Aztecs, who were then called the Mexica, were a poor, nomadic people from the ​ harsh deserts of northern Mexico. Fierce and ambitious, they soon adapted to local ​ ways, finding work as soldiers-for-hire to local rulers. ​ People and Empires in the Americas 453​  According to one of the Aztec legends, the god of the sun and warfare, ​ POHCH tlee), told them to found a city of their ​ Huitzilopochtli (wee tsee loh own. he said to look for a place where an eagle perched on a cactus, holding a ​ snake in its mouth. These words capture part of the legend: ​ PRIMARY SOURCE ​ The place where the eagle screams, ​ where he spreads his wings; ​ the place where he feeds, ​ where the fish jump, ​ where the serpents ​ coil up and hiss! ​ This shall be Mexico Tenochtitlán ​ and many things shall happen! ​ Crónica Mexicayotl ​ They found such a place on a small island in Lake Texcoco, at the center of the ​ valley. There, in 1325, they founded their city, which they named Tenochtitlán ​ (teh NOCH tee TLAHN). ​ Aztecs Grow Stronger Over the​ years, the aztecs gradually increased in strength ​ and number. In 1428, they joined with two other city-states—Texcoco and ​ Tlacopan—to form Triple the ​alliance.This​ alliance became the leading power in ​ the Valley of Mexico and soon gained control over neighboring regions. By the ​ early 1500s, they controlled a vast empire that covered some 80,000 square miles ​ stretching from central Mexico to the atlantic and Pacific coasts and south into ​ Oaxaca. This empire was divided into 38 provinces. It had an estimated population of between 5 and 15 million people. ​ The aztecs based their power on military conquest and ​ the tribute they gained from their conquered subjects. The ​ Warriors and Animal Symbols ​ aztecs generally exercised loose control over the empire, ​ Some of the highest-ranking Aztec ​ often letting local rulers govern their own regions. The ​ leaders were eagle warriors. (A statue aztecs ​ did demand tribute, however, in the form of gold, ​ of an eagle warrior is shown above.) ​ maize, cacao beans, cotton, jade, and other products. If ​ In battle, they wore eagle costumes inlocal ​ rulers failed to pay tribute, or offered any other kind of ​ honor of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli,resistance, ​ the aztecs responded brutally. They destroyed ​ who often took the form of an eagle. ​the rebellious villages and captured or slaughtered the ​ Comparing ​ The use of animal symbols by ​ inhabitants. ​ How were the ​ warriors was a widespread practice in ​ Aztecs’ methods of ​ ancient times. The eagle was a favoriteNobles ​ Rule Aztec At Society ​ the height of the Aztec ​ the empire ​ controlling among Roman soldiers because they ​Empire, military leaders held great power in aztec like those ofsociety. other ​ ​ thought it symbolized victory. In manyalong ​ with government officials and priests, theseempires youmilitary have read ​ ​ cultures, warriors adopted an animal ​leaders made up the noble class. Many noblesabout? owned​ vast ​ so that they would inherit the animal’s ​ estates, qualities. Celtic fighters, for example, ​ which they ruled over like lords, living a life of ​ wore boars’ heads on their helmets ​ great wealth and luxury. ​ so that they, like the boar, would be ​ There were two other broad classes in aztec society, com- ​ strong and fearless. Similarly, many ​ moners and enslaved persons. Commoners included mer- ​ African warriors adopted the lion for ​ chants, artisans, soldiers, and farmers who owned their own ​ its fighting ferocity. ​ land. The merchants formed a special type of elite. They ​ often traveled widely, acting as spies for the emperor and ​ gaining great wealth for themselves. The lowest class, ​ INTERNET ACTIVITY Go online ​ to ​ enslaved persons, were captives who did many different jobs. ​ plan a Web page on animal symbols ​ The emperor sat atop the aztec social pyramid. although ​ used by ancient warriors. ​ he sometimes consulted with top generals or officials, his ​ power was absolute. The emperor lived in a magnificent ​ 454 Chapter 16​ ​  palace, surrounded by servants and his wives. Visitors—even nobles—entered his ​ presence in bare feet and cast their eyes down so as not to look at him. ​ Tenochtitlán: A Planned City ​ By the early 1500s, Tenochtitlán had become an extraordinary urban center. With ​ a population of between 200,000 and 400,000 people, it was larger than any ​ European capital. Tenochtitlán remained on its original island site. To connect the ​ island to the mainland, Aztec engineers built three raised roads, called causeways, ​ over the water and marshland. Other smaller cities ringed the lake, creating a dense ​ concentration of people in the Valley of Mexico. ​ Streets and broad avenues connected the city center with outlying residential ​ districts. The canals that intersected with these roadways allowed canoes to bring ​ people directly into the city center. Canoes also brought goods from the farthest ​ reaches of the empire to the economic heart of the city, the huge market of ​ TLAH Tlatelolco ( tehl AWl koh). Visitors to the market also found a great deal of local agricultural produce on display, including avocados, beans, chili peppers, ​ corn, squash, and tomatoes. Most of the fruits and vegetables sold at the market ​ were grown on chinampas, ​farm plots built on the marshy fringes of the lake. These ​ plots, sometimes called “floating gardens,” were extremely productive, providing ​ the food needed for a huge urban population. ​ At the center of the city architectural engineers built a massive, walled complex, ​ filled with palaces, temples, and government buildings. The main structure in the ​ complex was the Great Temple. This giant pyramid with twin temples at the top, one ​ dedicated to the sun god and the other to the rain god, served as the center of Aztec ​ religious life. ​ The Market at Tlatelolco ​ Tenochtitlán—A Bustling City ​ Hernando Cortés, the Spanish conqueror of Mexico, noted Bernal ​ Díaz, one of Cortés’s soldiers, was amazed to find a ​ that the market at Tlatelolco was twice the size of the ​ bustling urban center in the heart of Mexico. ​ market at Salamanca, the Spanish city where he had ​ attended university. ​ Day after day 60,000 people congregate here to buy ​ When we saw all those cities and villages built in the ​ and sell. Every imaginable kind of merchandise is ​ water, and other great towns on dry land, and that ​ available from all parts of the Empire, foodstuffs and ​ straight and level causeway leading to Mexico, we were ​ dress,.. gold. , silver, copper,... precious stones, leather,astounded. ​ These great towns and cues [pyramids] and ​ bone, mussels, coral, cotton, feathers.... Everything is ​buildings rising from the water, all made of stone, ​ sold by the piece or by measurement, never by weight.seemed ​ like an enchanted vision.... Indeed, some of our ​ In the main market there is a law court in which there are soldiers ​ asked whether it was not all a dream. ​ always ten or twelve judges performing their office and ​ Bernal Díaz, The Conquest of New Spain ​ taking decisions on all marketing controversies. ​ Hernando Cortés, Letters of Information ​ DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS ​ 1. Contrasting ​How do the descriptions of Cortés and Díaz differ? ​​ 2. Making Inferences ​How do you think Cortés and Díaz feel about Aztec accomplishments? ​ People and Empires in the Americas 455  Religion Rules Aztec Life ​ Religion played a major role in Aztec society. Tenochtitlán contained hundreds of ​ temples and religious structures dedicated to the approximately 1,000 gods that ​ the Aztecs worshiped. The Aztecs adopted many of these gods, and religious prac- ​ tices related to them, from other Mesoamerican peoples. For example, the Aztecs ​ worshiped the Toltec god Quetzalcoatl in many forms. They saw him as the god of ​ learning and books, the god of the wind, and a symbol of death and rebirth. The ​ Aztecs pictured Quetzalcoatl not only as a feathered serpent, but also as a pale- ​ skinned man with a beard. ​ Religious Practices Aztec ​religious ​ practices centered on elaborate public ​ ceremonies designed to communicate ​ with the gods and win their favor. At ​ these ceremonies, priests made offer- ​ ings to the gods and presented ritual ​ dramas, songs, and dances featuring ​ masked performers. The Aztec ceremo- ​ nial calendar was full of religious festi- ​ vals, which varied according to the god ​ being honored. ​ Sacrifices for the Sun TheGodmost​ ​ important rituals involved a sun god, ​ Huitzilopochtli. Accord ing to Aztec ​ belief, Huitzilopochtli made the sun rise ​ every day. When the sun set, he had to ​ battle the forces of evil to get to the next ​ day. To make sure that he was strong ​ enough for this ordeal, he needed the ​ nourishment of human blood. Without ​ regular offerings of human blood, ​ Huitzilopochtli would be too weak to ​ fight. The sun would not rise, the world ​ would be plunged into darkness, and all ​ life would perish. For this reason, Aztec ​ ▲ ​This mural, in thepriests ​ practiced human sacrifice on a massive scale. Each year, thousands of vic- ​ National Palace in ​ tims were led to the altar atop the Great Temple, where priests carved out their ​ Mexico City, shows ​ Quetzalcoatl in many hearts ​ using obsidian knives. ​ forms. ​ Sacrificial victims included enslaved persons, criminals, and people offered as ​ tribute by conquered provinces. Prisoners of war, however, were the preferred vic- ​ tims. As a result, the priests required a steady supply of war captives. This in turn ​ pushed the Aztec military to carry out new conquests. In fact, Clarifying theWhyAztecs ​ often did the Aztecs ​ went ​ to war not to conquer new lands, but simply to capture prisoners take sofor manysacrifice. war ​ They ​ even adapted their battle tactics to ensure that they took theircaptives? ​ opponents alive. ​ Problems in the Aztec Empire ​ In 1502, a new ruler, Montezuma II (MAHN tih ZOO muh), was crowned emperor. ​ Under Montezuma, the Aztec Empire began to weaken. For nearly a century, the ​ Aztecs had been demanding tribute and sacrificial victims from the provinces ​ under their control. Now, with the population of Tenochtitlán growing ever greater, ​ Montezuma called for even more tribute and sacrifice. A number of provinces rose ​ 456 Chapter 16 ​​ The Aztec Calendar ​ Archaeologists believe that the Aztec calendar system was derived ​ from the Maya system. The Aztecs also used what they learned from ​ watching the heavens to create their calendar. The Aztecs followed ​ two main calendars: a sacred one with 13 months of 20 days and an ​ agricultural or solar one with 18 months of 20 days. (Notice that this ​ comes to 360 days. The Aztecs then had an unlucky five-day period ​ known as nemontemi, ​making their solar calendar 365 days long.) ​ Every 52 years, the two calendars would start on the same day, and a ​ great ceremony of fire marked the occasion. ​ Aztec Gods ​ The Aztecs worshiped many different gods. They ​ were a vital part of the Aztec calendar and daily life. ​ The Aztecs paid tribute to different gods depending, ​ in part, on the day, week, month, year, and religious ​ cycle of the Aztec calendars. The god shown here is a ​ sun god, Tonatiuh. ​ Aztec Sunstone ​ Originally located in the main ceremonial plaza of ​ Tenochtitlán, the Aztec calendar stone measures 13 ​ feet in diameter and weighs 24 tons. It was uncovered ​ in Mexico City in 1790. The Sunstone, as it is called, ​ contains a wealth of information about the days that ​ began and ended the Aztec months, the gods ​ associated with the days, and many other details. ​ This is an artist’s rendition of the ​ inner circle of the Sunstone. In the ​ center is the god Tonatiuh. ​ The four squares that surround ​ Tonatiuh are glyphs or symbols of the ​ four ages preceding the time of the ​ Aztecs: Tiger, Water, Wind, and Rain. ​ In the ring just outside the symbols ​ of the previous ages, 20 segments ​ represent the 20 days that made up ​ an Aztec month. Each day had its ​ own symbol and a god who watched ​ over the day. The symbol pointed to ​ here is Ocelotl, the jaguar. ​ SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources ​ 1. Hypothesizing Why do you think the Aztecs put ​ Tonatiuh, a sun god, in the center of the Sunstone? ​ Explain your reasons. ​ 2. Comparing and Contrasting How is the Aztec ​ calendar different from the calendar we use today? ​ How is it similar? ​ People and Empires in the Americas 457​ ​  Rise and Fall of the Aztecs ​ Traits of ​ Strength Leading Weakness ​ Leading to ​ Civilization ​ to Power ​ Decline ​ Religious beliefs and ​ United culture that is loyal Many ​ physical and human ​ theocracy ​ to the emperor ​ resources funneled into ​ religious activities ​ Powerful army ​ More land, power, and ​ Need for prisoners changes ​ prisoners for religious ​ warfare style to less deadly ​ sacrifices ​ and less aggressive ​ Empire of tribute states ​Provides wealth and power Tribute ​ states are rebellious ​ and prisoners for religiousand​ need to be controlled ​ sacrifice ​ SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts ​ 1. Drawing Conclusions ​ the tribute system both a strength and a weakness? ​ How was 2. Clarifying ​How are the army and religious beliefs linked in the Aztec Empire? ​​ up against Aztec oppression. This began a period of unrest and rebellion, which the ​ military struggled to put down. ​ Over time, Montezuma tried to lessen the pressure on the provinces. For exam- ​ ple, he reduced the demand for tribute payment by cutting the number of officials ​ in the Aztec government. But resent ment continued to grow. Many Aztecs began to ​ predict that terrible things were about to happen. They saw bad omens in every ​ unusual occurrence—lightning striking a temple in Tenochtitlán, or a partial ​ eclipse of the sun, for example. The most worrying event, however, Making was ​ the arrival ​ of the Spanish. For many Aztecs, these fair-skinned, bearded strangers inferences ​ from across ​ the sea brought to mind the legend of the return of Quetzalcoatl.Why​ would cutting ​ the number of empire Further south in the high mountain valleys of the Andes, another govern- ​ was ​ ment officials reduce the ​ developing, one that would transcend the Aztec Empire in landneed forarea, power, tribute money? ​ and ​ wealth. Like the Aztecs, the people of this Andean empire worshiped the sun and ​ had large armies. However, the society they built was much different from that of ​ the Aztecs, as you will see in Section 4. ​ SECTION ​ 3 ​ ASSESSMENT ​ TERMS & NAMES 1. ​For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. ​ obsidian ​ Quetzalcoatl ​ Triple Alliance ​ Montezuma II ​ USING YOUR NOTES ​ MAIN IDEA ​ CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING ​ 2.How ​ do you think the Aztecs 3.On ​ what was Teotihuacán’s ​7. IDENTIFYING SOLUTIONS How were ​ the Aztecs able to ​ were able to establish an ​ power and wealth based? ​ overcome the problems associated with Tenochtitlán’s ​ extensive empire in such a 4. ​ How ​ did the Aztecs rule their ​island location? ​ relatively short period of time? ​ empire? ​ 8. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do​ you think the Aztecs ​ 5.Why ​ allowed did the Aztecs think it was ​ some conquered peoples to govern themselves ​ necessary to make blood ​ with relatively little interference? ​ sacrifices to the sun god, ​ 9. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS How did​ the Aztec need for ​ Huitzilopochtli? ​ victims for sacrifice lead to problems controlling the ​ 6.What ​ were some structures ​ empire? ​ built by Aztec architectural 10. ​ WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Write a short ​ engineers? ​ playin​ which Montezuma discusses with his advisers ​ how to gain control of the empire’s rebellious provinces. ​ MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY PREPARING A MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION​ ​ Archaeologists and historians are still discovering new information about the Aztecs. One recent discovery involved the Aztecs' sophisticated use of mathematical symbols to calculate areas of land. Research Aztec mathematics and create a multimedia ​ presentation on how they applied math to various uses. Then ask for and answer classmates' questions. ​ 458 Chapter 16 ​​  4​ The Inca Create a ​ TEKS 6A, 15A, 21A, 26B, 27B ​ Mountain Empire ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ POWER AND AUTHORITY The The Incan ​ system of government ​ Pachacuti ​ mita ​ Inca built a vast empire supported ​was similar to some socialist ​ ayllu ​ quipu ​ by taxes, governed by a bureaucracy,governments ​ in the 20th century. ​ and linked by extensive road ​ systems. ​ SETTING THE STAGE ​ Aztecs ruled in the Valley of Mexico, another ​ While the people—the Inca—created an equally powerful state in South America. From ​ Cuzco, their capital in southern Peru, the Inca spread outward in all directions. ​ They brought various Andean peoples under their control and built an empire ​ that stretched from Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south. It was the largest ​ empire ever seen in the Americas. ​ The Inca Build an Empire ​ Like the Aztecs, the Inca built their empire on cultural foundations thousands ​ of years old. (See Chapter 9.) Ancient civilizations such as Chavín, Moche, and ​ Use the graphic organizer ​ Nazca had already established a tradition of high culture in Peru. online to take noteswere They on the ​ fol- ​ lowed by the Huari and Tiahuanaco cultures of southern Perumethods andthe Bolivia. Inca used toThe build ​ ​ Chimú, an impressive civilization of the 1300s based in the northern their empire.coastal ​ region ​ once controlled by the Moche, came next. The Inca would create an even more ​ powerful state, however, extending their rule over the entire Andean region. ​ Incan Beginnings ​ originally lived in a high plateau of the Andes. After ​ The Inca wandering the highlands for years, the Inca finally settled on fertile lands in the ​ Valley of Cuzco. By the 1200s, they had established their own small kingdom ​ in the valley. ​ During this early period, the Inca developed traditions and beliefs that helped ​ launch and unify their empire. One of these traditions was the belief that the ​ Incan ruler was descended from the sun god, Inti, who would bring prosper- ​ ity and greatness to the Incan state. Only men from one of 11 noble lineages ​ believed to be descendants of the sun god could be selected as Incan leaders. ​ Pachacuti Builds anAt Empire ​ Incan kingdom grew slowly. In 1438, ​ first the Pachacuti however, a powerful and ambitious ruler, ​ (PAH chah kOO tee), took ​ the throne. Under his leadership, the Inca conquered all of Peru and then moved ​ into neighboring lands. By 1500, the Inca ruled an empire that stretched 2,500 ​ miles along the western coast of South America. (See the map on page 461.) ​ The Inca called this empire “Land of the Four Quarters.” It included about 80 ​ provinces and was home to as many as 16 million people. ​ Pachacuti and his successors accomplished this feat of conquest through a ​ combination of diplomacy and military force. The Inca had a powerful military ​ People and Empires in the Americas 459​  but used force only when necessary. They were also clever ​ diplomats. Before attacking, they typically offered enemy ​ states an honorable surrender. They would allow them to ​ keep their own customs and rulers in exchange for loyalty ​ to the Incan state. Because of this treatment, many states ​ gave up without resisting. Even when force was used, the ​ Inca took a similar approach. Once an area was defeated, ​ they made every effort to gain the loyalty of the newly ​ conquered people. ​ Incan Government Creates Unity ​ To control the huge empire, the rulers divided their territory ​ and its people into manageable units, governed by a central ​ bureaucracy. The Inca created an efficient economic system to ​ Pachacuti ​ support the empire and an extensive road system to tie it ​ c. 1391–c. 1473 ​ together. They also imposed a single official language, ​ As the second son of the Incan ruler ​ Quechua (KEHCH wuh), and founded schools to teach Incan ​ Viracocha, Pachacuti did not expect ​ to succeed to the throne. However, ​ ways. certain social groups were identified by officially dic- ​ when Cuzco was attacked in 1438, ​ tated patterns on clothing. All of these actions were calculated Forming Opinions ​ ​ Viracocha and Pachacuti’s older ​ to unify the variety of people controlle