Psychology Week 7-12 Lecture Notes PDF

PSYC 1102 LECTURE 11 26AUGUST2024 PSYCHOLOGICAL Dr Kristin Gainey Associate Professor DISORDERS 1 School of Psychological Science Acknowledgement of Artist: Dr Richard Barry Walley OAM Country The University of Western...

PSYC 1102 LECTURE 11 26AUGUST2024 PSYCHOLOGICAL Dr Kristin Gainey Associate Professor DISORDERS 1 School of Psychological Science Acknowledgement of Artist: Dr Richard Barry Walley OAM Country The University of Western Australia acknowledges that its campus is situated on Noongar land, and that the Whadjuk Noongar people remain the spiritual and cultural custodians of their land, and continue to practice their values, languages, beliefs and knowledge. WOODGROVE BANK  OVERVIEW https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/persons/kristin-gainey WOODGROVE 3 BANK  OVERVIEW Lecture 11: What constitutes disorder? Classifying & diagnosing disorders Mood disorders Anxiety disorders Lecture 12: Psychosis Schizophrenia Personality disorders WOODGROVE 4 BANK https://www.uw astudentguild.c om/support/top ic/mental- health WOODGROVE 5 BANK UWA HEALTH PROMOTION UNIT WOODGROVE 6 BANK DOES THIS PERSON HAVE A MENTAL DISORDER? Narcissistic, self-grandiosity Preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power Requires excessive admiration Lacks empathy, callous unconcern for the feelings of others Excessive displays of anger, hostility, & blame when criticised Incapacity to experience guilt or to profit from experience, particularly punishment John WOODGROVE 7 BANK DOES THIS PERSON HAVE A MENTAL DISORDER? Narcissistic, self-grandiosity Preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power Requires excessive admiration Lacks empathy, callous unconcern for the feelings of others Excessive displays of anger, hostility, & blame when criticised Incapacity to experience guilt or to profit from experience, particularly punishment Jennifer WOODGROVE 8 BANK DIS | ORDER Where do we draw the line? Grief after death of a loved one vs. Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder Anxious before a speech vs. Social Anxiety Disorder Feeling really good and energetic, then low vs. Bipolar Disorder WOODGROVE 9 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms (deviant) Impact on functioning (dysfunctional) Distressing (to self / others) WOODGROVE Text: p. 597-98 BANK 10 CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency WOODGROVE 11 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency But…does statistically unusual necessarily mean it’s a disorder? WOODGROVE 12 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Some “rare” behaviours are seen as ‘gifts’ or ‘quirks’ WOODGROVE 13 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Some “disorders” are relatively common WOODGROVE 14 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Society plays a part in the definition of abnormality, often enshrined in law. But societal norms can change over time Considered a mental illness by the Australian Medical Association until 1973 1990 - WA decriminalises male acts of homosexuality. Same sex marriage legalised in Australia in 2017 WOODGROVE 15 BANK Until 1980 hysteria was a formally studied psychological disorder that could be found in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. WOODGROVE 16 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Some behaviours are deemed disordered in some societies, but accepted/valued in other cultures WOODGROVE 17 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Impact on functioning (dysfunctional) Most mental health disorders are defined by impact on function to the individual / society: Dislike of crowded places vs. not leaving home High cleanliness standard vs. washing hands for hours each day Important to consider Impact on work Impact on other activities Impact on relationships Impact on society WOODGROVE 18 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Impact on functioning (dysfunctional) WOODGROVE 19 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Impact on functioning (dysfunctional) Distressing (to self / others) WOODGROVE 20 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Impact on functioning (dysfunctional) Distressing (to self / others) Manic episode: “I’ve never felt better” However: Lots of energy What goes up must come down Heightened creativity Risky behaviour Decreased need for sleep Damage to reputation Euphoric feeling WOODGROVE 21 BANK CONCEPTUALISING DISORDER Statistical infrequency Violation of social norms Impact on functioning (dysfunctional) Distressing (to self / others) Certain behaviours deemed unacceptable/illegal when these behaviours may not be distressing or even dysfunctional for the perpetrator e.g. paedophilia WOODGROVE 22 BANK CONTEXT IS KEY Is there such thing as mental illness removed from context? SUMMARY No single element or characteristic sufficient to establish a definition of disorder Need to look at several elements, especially deviance from norms, degree of dysfunction, & distress caused Essential that behaviour is viewed within its broader social and cultural context WOODGROVE 23 BANK CLASSIFYING & DIAGNOSING DISORDERS DSM-5 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5, 2013) Seeks to provide clear categorical criteria American Psychiatric Association World Health Organisation International Classification of Diseases (ICD 11) Also includes mental disorders Both systems decided based on expert consensus, not purely objective evidence or biology WOODGROVE Text: p. 598 BANK 24 CLASSIFYING & DIAGNOSING DISORDERS DSM-5 Mental disorders classified using a specific ‘checklist’ criteria Functional impairment and/or distress required for most Also have to consider the cultural and social context Exclusion criteria/diagnoses WOODGROVE Text: p. 598 BANK 25 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Prevalence Costs approx. $60 billion per year in Australia Direct economic costs e.g. health services Indirect costs e.g. lost work productivity Text: p. 596 WOODGROVE 26 BANK MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Prevalence Men vs women: More than 3 times more deaths by suicide WOODGROVE Text: p. 618-19 BANK 27 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS General model of causes of disorders Vulnerability-stress model Text: p. 601 WOODGROVE 28 BANK MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Depression Depressive disorders Major depressive disorder Emotional Cognitive Symptoms Physiological Behavioural/ - e.g. fatigue motivational Symptoms must be present for at least 2 weeks WOODGROVE Text: p. 612-613 BANK 29 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS What causes depression? Twin studies: 67% identical vs 15% fraternal More common in women Biological: Serotonin hypothesis? Behavioural inhibition system: pain-avoidant, generates fear/anxiety Behavioural approach system: reward-oriented system High BIS sensitivity, low BAS activation WOODGROVE Text: p. 614-18 BANK 30 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS What causes depression? Twin studies: 67% identical vs 15% fraternal More common in women Biological: Serotonin hypothesis? Behavioural inhibition system (BIS): pain-avoidant, generates fear/anxiety Behavioural approach system (BAS): reward-oriented system High BIS sensitivity, low BAS activation Psychological / cognitive: Loss or low positive reinforcement Negative thoughts about the self, world and future Attribute success to external factors, attribute failure as internal, stable and global Learned helplessness theory: nothing can be done to prevent negative hopeless future WOODGROVE Text: p. 614-18 BANK 31 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS What maintains depression? Research feature: Smartphones can identify behaviour that predicts worsening depression Phone calls Phone usage User activity GPS features He et al., 2022 Text: p. 616, 618 WOODGROVE 32 BANK MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Bipolar disorder Bipolar I (mania) vs. Bipolar II (hypomania) WOODGROVE Text: p. 613 BANK 33 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Anxiety disorders Most common psychological disorder Women: 1/3 Men: 1/5 over lifetime Can be debilitating but treatments are generally effective WOODGROVE Text: p. 602-03 BANK 34 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Anxiety disorders Emotional Cognitive Feelings of tension Worry Apprehension Thoughts about inability to cope Fear Symptoms Physiological Behavioural Increased heart rate Avoidance of feared situations Muscle tension Decreased task performance Other autonomic arousal Increased startle response WOODGROVE Text: p. 602 BANK 35 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Anxiety disorders Emotional Cognitive Feelings of tension Worry Apprehension Thoughts about inability to cope Fear Physiological Behavioural Increased heart rate Avoidance of feared situations Muscle tension Decreased task performance Other autonomic arousal Increased startle response WOODGROVE Text: p. 602 BANK 36 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Generalised Anxiety Disorder WOODGROVE Text: p. 604 BANK 37 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Panic Disorder WOODGROVE Text: p. 603 BANK 38 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Phobias Often fears have evolutionary advantage Can also be learnt socially Specific phobias E.g. spider phobia, blood/injury, heights Social anxiety/phobia Agoraphobia Fear of situations where escape may be difficult WOODGROVE Text: p. 603 BANK 39 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Obsessive Compulsive Disorder WOODGROVE Text: p. 604-05 BANK 40 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Post-traumatic Stress Disorder WOODGROVE Text: p. 605-06 BANK 41 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Trauma can be experienced in person, or witnessed (vicariously) Not all exposed to a traumatic event develops PTSD Traumas caused by human actions  much more likely to lead to PTSD than natural disasters Thought to be caused in part  incomplete processing and integration of event Complex PTSD can be the result of repeated or ongoing trauma, especially early in life WOODGROVE Text: p. 605-06 BANK 42 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Post-traumatic Stress Disorder WOODGROVE Text: p. 605-06 BANK 43 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Causes of anxiety disorders Biological: Twin studies – 40% identical, 4% fraternal Neurotransmitters e.g. GABA Learning: Classical conditioning e.g. dog bite = fear of dogs Observational/social learning e.g. parents socially anxious Operant conditioning e.g. avoidance is negatively reinforcing Cognitive: Attentional bias to threat Appraisals of situation Socio-cultural: Some anxieties culturally bound e.g. Taijin kofushu Somatic symptoms where culturally unacceptable to talk about feelings WOODGROVE Text: p. 606-09 BANK 44 MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Cause of fear of heights (acrophobia) Research feature: Used a behavioural avoidance task with people with acrophobia Predicted performance from sensory and cognitive variables Poor postural control Discomfort with inadequate visual/spatial cues Overreliance on visual information Fear of physical anxiety sensations Suggests a possible causal role for these characteristics Coelho & Wallis, 2010 WOODGROVE 45 BANK MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS Research feature: Maintenance of anxiety Safety behaviours increase or create anxiety People did contamination-related safety behaviours for 1 week, then 1 week back to normal Increased perception of threat, fear of contamination, and avoidant behaviours WOODGROVE Text: p. 607-08 Deacon & Maack, 2008 BANK 46  SUMMARY Defining a ‘psychological disorder’ is not clear-cut Psychological disorders usually classified using the DSM-5 Mood disorders include depression and bipolar Depression is maintained by a pattern of reduced enjoyment and motivation, leading to less engagement in activity, fatigue, increased rumination, and further maintenance of depressive symptoms Range of anxiety disorders, characterised by emotional, cognitive, physiological and behavioural symptoms Anxiety is maintained by a pattern of hypervigilance towards potential danger, and avoidance that serves to reinforce anxiety WOODGROVE 47 BANK  SELECTED REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Barlow, D. H. (2002). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed). Guilford Press. Coelho, C. M., & Wallis, G. (2010). Deconstructing acrophobia: Physiological and psychological precursors to developing a fear of heights. Depression & Anxiety, 27, 864-870. Deacon, B., & Maack, D. J. (2008). The effects of safety behaviors on the fear of contamination: An experimental investigation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 537-547. Gotlib, I. H., & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of depression (3rd ed.). Guilford Press. He, X., Triantafyllopoulos, A., Dathan, A., et al. (2022). Depression diagnosis and forecast based on mobile phone sensor data. 44th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society (EMBC), Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom, 2022, pp. 4679-4682. Miklowitz, D. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Understanding bipolar disorder: a developmental psychopathology perspective. Guilford Press Moncrieff, J., Cooper, R.E., Stockmann, T. et al. (2023). The serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence. Molecular Psychiatry, 28, 3243–3256. Wakefield, J. C. (1992). The concept of mental disorder: On the boundary between biological WOODGROVE 48 facts and social values. American Psychologist, 47(3), 373–388 BANK  NEXT LECTURE Lecture 11: What constitutes disorder? Classifying & diagnosing disorders Mood disorders Anxiety disorders Lecture 12: Psychosis Schizophrenia Personality disorders WOODGROVE 49 BANK  THANK YOU Dr Kristin Gainey [email protected] https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/persons/kristin-gainey  PSYC 1102 LECTURE 12 28AUGUST2024 PSYCHOLOGICAL Dr Kristin Gainey Associate Professor DISORDERS 2 School of Psychological Science  OVERVIEW Lecture 11: What constitutes disorder? Classifying & diagnosing disorders Mood disorders Anxiety disorders Lecture 12: Psychosis Schizophrenia Personality disorders WOODGROVE 2 BANK PSYCHOSIS Self-portrait, 1889, private collection. Mirror -image self portrait with Starry starry night, Vincent van Gogh, 1889, MOMA bandaged ear WOODGROVE 3 BANK PSYCHOSIS Symptom cluster rather than disorder Present in a range of disorders Schizophrenia Other causes, e.g. drug use, medication, health conditions, head injury, Bipolar I disorder trauma Delusional disorder Borderline personality disorder Depression with psychotic features Schizoaffective disorder Dementia WOODGROVE 4 BANK PSYCHOSIS Symptoms Hallucinations Auditory Visual Tactile Delusions, incl. paranoia Grandeur Persecution Religious Disorganisation Thought Speech Activity Often preceded by prodromal period WOODGROVE 5 BANK PSYCHOSIS Causes Genetic vulnerability + Environmental Psychological Triggers Socio-cultural Substance use Periods of stress or change Lack of sleep Illness WOODGROVE 6 BANK PSYCHOSIS Causes Research feature: Is marijuana use a risk factor for psychosis? 100,000 people in the UK People with a history of cannabis use were 50% more likely to experience psychosis For people with high genetic risk for psychosis, rate went up to 60% Suggests a possible causal effect of marijuana use But it could be that people at risk for psychosis are more like to use marijuana (self-medication) Wainberg et al., 2021 WOODGROVE 7 BANK PSYCHOSIS Causes Research feature: People with psychosis often have dysfunctional eye movements Used eye-tracking at baseline, then followed people at clinical high risk for psychosis (don’t yet have full symptoms) and controls Eye movement abnormalities predicted who would develop psychosis three years later Could help identify people who are currently healthy but likely to develop psychosis Zhang et al., 2023 WOODGROVE 8 BANK PSYCHOSIS Prognosis Recovery rate from first episode psychosis: 58% Services focused on early intervention during prodromal phase or after first episode https://www.ted.com/talks/eleanor_longden _the_voices_in_my_head?language=en WOODGROVE 9 BANK SCHIZOPHRENIA WOODGROVE Text: p. 621-23 BANK 10 SCHIZOPHRENIA Presentation & prognosis Earlier onset age in men (early 20’s) vs. women (late 20’s) Chronic condition 1 in 7 recover Elevated risk of suicide and accident WOODGROVE Text: p. 623 BANK 11 SCHIZOPHRENIA Causes Biological: Twin studies – 48% identical vs 17% fraternal for schizophrenia Dopamine hypothesis (salience, reward, novelty) – particularly positive symptoms Brain differences: cerebral volume 2% smaller and ventricles 26% larger Environmental: Stressful life events Other environmental impacts Sociocultural: Relatively consistent across cultures; Symptoms may have different significance But, higher rates in low socio-economic groups Social causation hypothesis WOODGROVE Social drift hypothesis Text: p. 623-25 BANK 12 PERSONALITY DISORDER What is personality? What is personality disorder? An enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture This pattern is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas: Cognition (i.e. ways of seeing and interpreting self, other people or events); Affectivity (range, intensity, lability, appropriateness); Interpersonal functioning and impulse control WOODGROVE Text: p. 627 BANK 13 PERSONALITY DISORDER Diagnosis Criteria employed in DSM-5 to distinguish personality traits (normal) from personality disorders (pathological) Stability/duration Inflexibility Maladaptiveness Functional impairments/subjective distress Can only be diagnosed when >18yrs old, when personality is assumed to have stabilized WOODGROVE 14 BANK PERSONALITY DISORDER Diagnosis – categorical vs. dimensional classification DSM-5 = categorical approach Views PDs as similar to a medical disorder diagnostically Those with a PD qualitatively different from “normal personality” Currently debated vs. WOODGROVE Text: p. 632-33 BANK 15 PERSONALITY DISORDER Personality Clusters WOODGROVE Text: p. 628 BANK 16 PERSONALITY DISORDER Borderline personality disorder Originally conceptualized as border between psychosis (considered untreatable) and neurosis (considered treatable) Unstable identity, relationship, emotions, and behaviours 2/3 are women 2% of population Highly comorbid with substance use, eating disorders, mood and anxiety disorders WOODGROVE Text: p. 631-32 BANK 17 PERSONALITY DISORDER Borderline personality disorder Diagnosis A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self image and affect as indicated 5+ of: Frantic attempts to avoid real or imagined abandonment Unstable and intense interpersonal relationships Persistently unstable self image Self damaging impulsivity Recurrent suicidal behaviour or self injury Affective instability Chronic feelings of emptiness Inappropriate anger or difficulty controlling anger Transient stress related paranoid thinking or dissociation WOODGROVE 18 BANK PERSONALITY DISORDER Borderline personality disorder Causes Emotional vulnerability Often have a history of early interpersonal stress, sexual and physical abuse, and inconsistent/incompatible parenting Trauma often very early on, before sense of self has properly developed Learn to be hyper-attuned to emotions in others Less development of inner self ; feelings of emptiness Symptoms are a way to cope with intense feelings, e.g. self-harm, substance use WOODGROVE Text: p. 632 BANK 19 PERSONALITY DISORDER Antisocial Personality Disorder Most societally- destructive personality disorder “Psychopaths” Conduct disorder symptoms often present in childhood WOODGROVE Text: p. 627-29 BANK 20 PERSONALITY DISORDER Antisocial Personality Disorder Pervasive pattern of disregard for their consequences and the rights of others Exploit, manipulate, violate the rights of others Lack of concern, regret, or remorse about other people’s distress Behaves irresponsibly, disregard for social norms Difficulty sustaining long term relationships Unable to control anger Lacking in guilt, and learning from mistakes Blame others for their problems Repeatedly breaking the law WOODGROVE 21 BANK  CASE STUDY: TOM 21 year old roommate, has a job, has a master's degree, and has never been arrested. Tom was the kind of person who would give you the shirt off his back. Yet, in the long run, he would come out ahead. In fact, he once did give me a bunch of white shirts which had been given to him by someone he knew. He kept a few for himself and gave the rest to me. However, before he left, he borrowed $300 from me which he never returned. When you read accounts of anti-social personalities, you would think that people who associate with them would soon see through them. This was not the case with me and Tom, even though I am a clinical psychologist who has done research on just this type personality, The ability of the psychopathic personality to manipulate and get away with it is perhaps a lot better than people realize. On another occasion Tom took money from a friend in order to purchase drugs for that friend. He neither obtained the illicit drugs nor did he return the money. When he learned that the friend was angry at him, Tom could not understand why. I tried to explain to him that, in effect, he had stolen the friend's money. This did not seem to register with Tom who said "1 intended to help, This just goes to show you. I'm never going to do a favor for anyone again." Even though I persisted in trying to explain to him that he had stolen the money, Tom could apparently not see how he did anything wrong. In this regard, he is very much like the incarcerated delinquents I worked with, who would almost all have various rationalizations to justify their crime, such as "He deserved to get burglarized because he left a window open". Eisenman, R. (1993). An anti-social personality disorder: Case history of a never-incarcerated youth. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 9(1), 63-67. WOODGROVE 22 BANK PERSONALITY DISORDER Antisocial Personality Disorder Causes Heritability between 0.4 and 0.5 Absence of guilt and anxiety earlier in life Emotional under-arousal and poor behavioural inhibition Corresponding with dysfunction in amygdala and prefrontal cortex Parenting – often aggressive or inattentive/neglectful, especially in early years Impacts early development Role models WOODGROVE Text: p. 629-30 BANK 23 PERSONALITY DISORDER: BIAS IN DIAGNOSES? Research feature: Gave clinicians a case study; half were told the person was female, and half that the person was male Asked to rate the case study on personality traits and PD diagnoses Female case studies were rated as more histrionic, males as more antisocial = gender bias in diagnoses Less bias was observed using trait ratings Doesn’t require the same global decision, more precise descriptions WOODGROVE Samuel & Widiger, 2009 BANK 24 PERSONALITY DISORDER Personality Clusters WOODGROVE Text: p. 628 BANK 25 PERSONALITY DISORDER Obsessive compulsive personality disorder Perfectionistic: Showing great attention to detail or correct behaviour Extremely careful, conscientious, diligent, meticulous, and strict WOODGROVE 26 BANK PERSONALITY DISORDER Obsessive compulsive personality disorder Penurious Very unwilling to spend money or use resources WOODGROVE 27 BANK PERSONALITY DISORDER Obsessive compulsive personality disorder Pedantic Excessively concerned with minor details or rules Exacting, dogmatic, hypercritical, nit- picking WOODGROVE 28 BANK LEGAL ISSUES IN DIAGNOSES “Mental impairment” can absolve responsibility for crimes in court PD cannot be included for this However mental health may be considered in sentencing Defense of mental impairment vs competency to stand trial Controversy about how to define “insanity” WOODGROVE Text: p. 638 BANK 29 WHY DIAGNOSIS? Benefits of diagnosis Communication Research Treatment Can be validating WOODGROVE Text: p. 637-38 BANK WHY DIAGNOSIS? Benefits of diagnosis Communication Research Treatment Can be validating Concerns with current diagnostic system Stigma and over-identification Loss of information about severity Comorbidity Heterogeneity within disorders WOODGROVE Text: p. 637-38 BANK  SUMMARY Psychosis is an umbrella term encapsulating hallucinations, delusions, and/or disorganisation Schizophrenia is a chronic illness that can have positive symptoms (psychosis) and negative symptoms Personality disorders tend to be stable, inflexible, maladaptive, and cause the individual distress or impair functioning 3 clusters of personality disorders A: odd /eccentric B: dramatic /erratic C: anxious / fearful Diagnosis is a helpful tool but also has some limitations and is refined over time WOODGROVE 32 BANK  SELECTED REFERENCES Clark, L. A. (2007). Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder: perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 227–257. Ghane, M., & Sparer, T. (2019). An Integrative and Mechanistic Model of Impaired Belief Updating in Schizophrenia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 39(29), 5630. Kotov, R, et al. (2017). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(4), 454–477. Lally, J., Ajnakina, O., Stubbs, B., Cullinane, M., Murphy, K. C., Gaughran, F., & Murray, R. M. (2017). Remission and recovery from first-episode psychosis in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of long-term outcome studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 211(6), 350-358. Samuel, D. B., & Widiger, T. A. (2009). Comparative gender biases in models of personality disorder. Personality and Mental Health, 3, 12–25. Wainberg, M., et al., (2021). Cannabis, schizophrenia genetic risk, and psychotic experiences: a cross-sectional study of 109,308 participants from the UK Biobank. Translational Psychiatry, 2021; 11 (1) Walker, E., Kestler, L., Bollini, A., & Hochman, K. M. (2004). Schizophrenia: etiology and course. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 401-430. Zhang, D., et al., 2023). Eye movement indices as predictors of conversion to psychosis in WOODGROVE individuals at clinical high risk. European Archives of Psychiatry, 273, 553.563. 33 BANK  THANK YOU Dr Kristin Gainey [email protected] https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/persons/kristin-gainey Your feedback would be greatly appreciated!! Please use this link/QR code: https://go.blueja.io/3vejopjFR0CHWhZbYCMCDA 1 Intelligence - Part 1 Gilles Gignac, University of Western Australia 2 Part 1: Topics  Meta-Cognition and Self-Ratings of IQ  What Exactly is an IQ Score?  IQ and Intelligence Across Age  Should Old People Have Important Jobs?  Why is Intelligence Important?  What is a Genius?  What is an “Idiot Savant”?  Positive Manifold  Higher-Order Structure of Intelligence 3 Intelligent?  “Who here thinks they are intelligent?”  Research area:  Understanding how individuals perceive their own intelligence.  How accurate are self-assessments of cognitive abilities?  Studies compare self-perceived intelligence with scores from objective intelligence tests.  Highlights the gap between perceived and actual cognitive performance. 4 Animal Intelligence? 5 Meta-Cognition  The gap between perceived intelligence and actual test performance relates to metacognition.  Metacognition: Our ability to reflect on and evaluate our own thought processes.  Some experts: A fundamental aspect of intelligence includes intellectual self-awareness and the ability to improve independently through self- evaluation. 6 Measuring Self-Assessed Intelligence  Participants are introduced to the normal distribution (bell curve) and shown an image.  They are informed that the national average IQ is 100.  Asked to estimate their own IQ score as if they were taking a standard, objective test.  Participants then place themselves on the bell curve to represent their von Stum (2014, p. 245) estimated IQ. von Stumm, S. (2014). Intelligence, gender, and assessment method affect the accuracy of self‐estimated intelligence. British Journal of Psychology, 105(2), 243-253. 7 Self-Rating Accuracy  65% of people believe they are above average in intelligence (Heck et al., 2018)  “Better-than-average effect”  Only about 5% of people rate themselves below average in intelligence (Gignac & Zajenkowski, 2019).  Despite the above, the correlation between self-assessed intelligence and objectively measured intelligence is about.30 (Freund & Kasten, 2012). 8 What Exactly is an IQ Score?  IQ scores have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.  They are ‘standardized scores’  z-scores have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1, making them easily interpretable across measures.  A z-score of 0 always represents the mean, while a z-score of 1 is one standard deviation above the mean.  Only 16% of people are expected to score 1 standard deviation above the mean on any psychological attribute in a normal distribution. 9 Example IQ Score Calculations  Example: A short intelligence test with 20 questions.  From 1000 people, the mean raw score is 12.5 and the standard deviation is 2.75.  A raw score of 10 would correspond to a z-score of -0.91.  To convert this z-score to an IQ score:  Formula: (z-score * 15) + 100  Calculation: (-0.91 * 15) + 100 = 86.35 (or 86 rounded)  Key takeaway: IQ scores are relative, reflecting how an individual’s performance compares to that of others. 10 IQ Across Age  The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – IV (WAIS-IV) is a well-known comprehensive intelligence test (Wechsler, 2008).  The normative sample includes 2,200 individuals aged 16 to 90.  Because intelligence changes with age, test scores are compared to others in the same age group.  The normative sample is divided into 13 age bands for comparison.  Almost all age bands have 200 people in them. 11 Intelligence Across Age  Matrix Reasoning: non-verbal reasoning task.  A 20-year-old answering 19 Matrix Reasoning questions correctly would have the same IQ score (100) as an 80-year-old answering 9.5 questions.  Recall, IQ scores are relative to people in your same age band.  Despite identical IQ scores, their absolute levels of intelligence differ.  In absolute terms, the 20-year-old shows significantly higher cognitive ability (twice the cognitive capacity). 12 Intelligence Across Age  On average, there’s a big difference in performance on the Matrix Reasoning test.  However, there is some overlap.  The absolute smartest 80- to 84-year-old is smarter than a decent percentage of the least smart 20-year-olds. 13 Intelligence Across Age  Kaufman (2021) analyzed data from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III and WAIS-IV) for ages 16 to 90.  The Verbal Comprehension Index increases through late middle age before declining.  The other three indexes, especially Processing Speed, peak much earlier and decline steadily with age.  Processing Speed peaks around age 16.5, while Perceptual Reasoning peaks in the mid-20s.  By ages 75 to 90, scores for reasoning and speed can drop to levels near mild intellectual disability (circa 70).  Lifetime appointments of federal judges? 14 Why Is Intelligence Decreasing?  Marcus et al. (2007) studied 416 individuals aged 18 to 96 years, using normalized Whole Brain Volume (nWBV) as the dependent variable.  nWBV measures the proportion of brain volume relative to intracranial volume.  In younger adults (18–35 years), the average nWBV is around 85%.  In older adults (75+ years), nWBV decreases to 70-75% due to age-related brain atrophy.  This decrease reflects the natural reduction in brain volume with aging.  Perhaps not a coincidence that intelligence decreases after the age of 30? 15 Why is Intelligence Important?  Meta-analyses show that intelligence is a positive predictor of academic performance (Lozano-Blasco et al., 2022).  The correlation between intelligence and academic performance is approximately r =.4.  Individuals with higher intelligence scores generally achieve better grades and academic outcomes.  This correlation exists because intelligence includes cognitive abilities like problem-solving, reasoning, and memory, which are crucial for learning and performing well in academics. 16 Why is Intelligence Important?  Intelligence is a strong predictor of job performance, and the correlation may be as high as 0.6 (Foster et al., 2024).  Big, positive correlation. 17 Depends on the Job  The correlation tends to be larger at the start of jobs.  Period where the most learning needs to take place.  Farrell and McDaniel (2001) study.  For consistent jobs (e.g., assembly line workers):  At 6 months of experience: correlation around 0.3.  At 120 months: correlated weakened to around 0.2 (tasks became routine).  For inconsistent jobs (e.g., engineers):  At 6 months: correlation around 0.4  At 120 months: correlation remained around 0.4  This shows the ongoing importance of intelligence in jobs requiring continuous learning and adaptation. 18 Why is Intelligence Important?  Research shows a moderate positive correlation between intelligence (IQ) and income.  Meta-analyses, including Strenze (2007) and the NLSY, report positive correlations ranging from 0.20 to 0.30.  This suggests that higher intelligence is associated with higher earnings  Only one of many factors influencing income.  The relationship is stronger in more cognitively demanding jobs.  These findings highlight the complex interplay between intelligence and financial success, emphasizing multiple factors in income determination. 19 Why is Intelligence Important?  Higher intelligence is linked to a lower risk of motor vehicle accident mortality (longevity).  Each point increase in intelligence reduces the odds of an accident by 7% (O'Toole, 1990).  Intelligence is considered an indicator of biological fitness—an organism's ability to survive and reproduce (Miller, 2000).  Prokosch et al. (2005) found a 0.27 correlation between general intelligence and physical symmetry, a sign of good health.  Physical symmetry includes balanced features (e.g., eyes, ears, facial proportions) and symmetrical body parts (e.g., hands, arms).  This suggests that higher intelligence may be linked to overall biological well-being. 20 What is a Genius?  The term genius is rarely used in intelligence research and assessment.  Genius is more commonly used in popular culture to describe individuals with exceptional talents or achievements but lacks a standardized scientific definition.  In psychology, the term 'giftedness' is used for individuals with exceptional abilities in intellectual, creative, or artistic domains.  Giftedness is often identified through high performance on standardized assessments. 21 Intellectual Giftedness Categories  Key takeaway: only around 2% of the population is moderately gifted.  Only about 25 Australians would have a profound level of intellectual giftedness (based on circa 1 per million) 22 What is an “Idiot Savant”?  Originally described individuals with developmental disabilities but exceptional skills in specific areas (e.g., memory, art, music).  Now commonly referred to as "savant syndrome" or "autistic savant."  The original term is considered outdated and potentially offensive. 23 “Twice-Exceptional”  Refers to individuals who are both intellectually gifted and have a learning disability or neurodevelopmental disorder.  Identification involves a comprehensive assessment, including:  Standardized intelligence tests  Achievement tests  Evaluations for specific learning disabilities or neurodevelopmental disorders  A significant discrepancy between areas of high ability and areas of difficulty may indicate twice exceptionality.  Cheek et al. (2023) suggests that twice exceptionality is often over- diagnosed. 24 How Many People Can be Twice- Exceptional?  Very few, because of something called the ‘positive manifold’.  The positive manifold refers to the consistent finding that cognitive abilities are positively correlated across individuals.  People who perform well on one cognitive test tend to perform well on others, even if the tests measure different abilities. 25 Positive Manifold: Example  Vocabulary measures verbal comprehension, language development, and general knowledge by defining words of increasing difficulty.  Block Design assesses visual-spatial processing and problem-solving by arranging coloured blocks to match patterns within a time limit.  Despite measuring different abilities, these tests show a positive correlation (around r =.50) due to the positive manifold.  Individuals who perform well on Block Design also tend to do well on the Vocabulary subtest, indicating a link between spatial and verbal skills. 26 Rarity of Twice-Exceptionality: Simulation 27 Positive Manifold: WAIS-R  All subtests within the Wechsler scales show strong, positive intercorrelations, not just Block Design and Vocabulary.  The 10 subtests of the WAIS-R all positively intercorrelate.  The average inter-correlation among subtests is.50, ranging from: .33 (Digit Span and Object Assembly) to.81 (Vocabulary and Information). 28 Structure of Intelligence  Subtests are classified into two categories:  verbal intelligence and performance intelligence.  Verbal subtests: Digit Span, Information, Vocabulary, Arithmetic, and Similarities.  Performance subtests: Picture Completion, Picture Arrangement, Block Design, Object Assembly, and Digit Symbol.  Stronger correlations occur within the same category:  Verbal: Information and Vocabulary show a high correlation of.81.  Performance: Block Design and Object Assembly correlate at.63.  Cross-category correlations are generally lower, with the strongest being.56 between Arithmetic (verbal) and Block Design (performance).  This pattern supports the distinction between verbal and performance intelligence and illustrates the positive manifold across cognitive abilities. 29 Higher-Order Structure of Intelligence  Intelligence can be structured hierarchically:  General intelligence (g) at the top.  Verbal and performance intelligence are broad, group-level factors below g.  These group factors include related but distinct cognitive abilities. (Gignac, 2005) 30 CHC Model of Intelligence  Carroll (1993) proposed the Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Abilities through a re-analysis of intelligence test datasets.  The model has a hierarchical structure with three levels:  Stratum III: General intelligence (g), representing overall cognitive ability.  Stratum II: Broad abilities like fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, memory, and processing speed.  Stratum I: Narrow abilities, which are specific skills related to the broad abilities (e.g., numerical facility, verbal fluency).  This model is comprehensive, integrating many previous theories. 31 CHC Model of Intelligence  The widely recognized Cattell- Horn-Carroll (CHC) model (McGrew, 2009) builds on Carroll's theory, consisting of:  1 Stratum III factor  16 Stratum II factors  Over 70 Stratum I factors NB: The model above does not have all of the Stratum II or Stratum I dimensions/factors (to save space). 32 CHC Model of Intelligence 1 Intelligence - Part 2 Gilles Gignac, University of Western Australia 2 Part 2: Topics  Brain Volume and Intelligence  Myopia and Intelligence  Heritability of Intelligence  Wilson Effect  Group Differences  Perception of Intelligence in Others  Is Intelligence Sexually Attractive?  Emotional Intelligence  Practical Intelligence  Flynn Effect  Intelligence Defined  Is AI Intelligent? 3 Brain Volume and IQ  Meta-analytic correlation: r ≈.4 (Gignac & Bates, 2017)  Is it really a larger brain that causes the correlation?  Some researchers focus on “cortical surface area” 4 Cortical Surface Area  Brains can have gyri and sulci.  This allows brains to have more cortical surface area within the same space.  Do only humans have brains with gyrification?  No, other animals do as well.  The images to the right are of a dolphin’s brain. 5 Myopia and IQ  Fuchs, Goldschmidt, & Teasdale (1988) examined myopia, intelligence, and education in 18-year-old Danish men.  Myopic individuals had significantly higher intelligence scores than non- myopic counterparts.  Positive correlation between myopia and intelligence (r = 0.57).  Non-Linear Relationship  No significant differences in intelligence scores for myopia beyond -2.0 dioptres.  Degree of severity of myopia does not correspond to higher intelligence.  Factors linked to intelligence may trigger the onset of myopia but do not influence its progression in severity. 6 Heritability of Myopia and IQ  Williams et al. (2017) investigated myopia and intelligence in 1,500 subjects aged 14-18.  Both traits are heritable:  Myopia: 85% heritability.  Intelligence: 47% heritability.  Genetic Correlation:  A small but statistically significant genetic effect of intelligence on myopia has been found.  There’s evidence that near-sighted people tend to have larger brains (Takeuchi et al., 2018). 7 Heritability of Intelliegence  47% of intelligence variability is heritable, indicating a significant genetic influence (Williams et al., 2017).  Nearly half of the differences in intelligence among individuals are due to genetic factors.  The remaining variability is influenced by environmental factors (e.g., education, upbringing, life experiences).  Highlights the complex interplay between genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping intelligence. Williams, K. M., Hysi, P. G., Yonova-Doing, E., Mahroo, O. A., Snieder, H., & Hammond, C. J. (2017). Phenotypic and genotypic correlation between myopia and intelligence. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 45977. 8 Convergence in Cognitive Abilities  Cognitive similarity between genetically related individuals increases with age (Honzik, 1957).  Correlation between child’s intelligence and biological parents’ intelligence:  Age 4: r ≈.38  Age 14-15: r ≈.54  Indicates the impact of both genetics and environment on cognitive development.  Comparison with Adoptive Parents:  Children’s correlation with adoptive parents at age 14-15: r ≈.43  Smaller but still notable association. Honzik, M. P. (1957). Developmental studies of parent-child resemblance in intelligence. Child Development, 28(2), 215-228. 9 Wilson Effect  Wilson Effect: Heritability of intelligence increases with age (Bouchard, 2013; Plomin & Deary, 2015).  Infancy: Genetic factors account for ~25% of IQ variation.  Adolescence: Heritability rises to ~60% (Tucker-Drob et al., 2013).  Old Age: Heritability may reach up to 70% (Deary et al., 2012).  Underlying Factors:  - Increased autonomy in environment selection.  - New gene activation during puberty.  Conclusion: Genetic factors increasingly shape cognitive abilities over the lifespan. 10 Group Differences in Intelligence  Are there gender differences in intelligence?  One of the largest differences observed is on mental rotation.  On average, males perform better.  Equal to about a 10 IQ point advantage (Voyer et al., 1995).  So, not small (but not huge either). Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117(2), 250-270. 11 Mental Rotation  The difference is substantially reduced when pellets are used instead of (Rahe & Quaiser-Pohl, 2019) Rahe, M., & Quaiser-Pohl, C. (2019). Cubes or pellets in mental-rotation tests: Effects on gender differences and on the performance in a subsequent math test. Behavioral Sciences, 10(1), 12. 12 Mental Rotation  The difference is eliminated when using stereotypically female oriented images. Rahe, M., Ruthsatz, V., & Quaiser-Pohl, C. (2021). Influence of the stimulus material on gender differences in a mental-rotation test. Psychological Research, 85(8), 2892-2899. 13 Racial Differences  Best estimate today suggests that the Black-White difference in America is decreasing and may be about 10 IQ points (Rushton & Jensen, 2006).  Why the difference exists is hotly contested.  How much does the environment play a role? Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2006). The totality of available evidence shows the race IQ gap still remains. Psychological Science, 17(10), 921- 922. 14 Racial Differences: Overlap  There’s so much overlap in the distributions, that it would be better to focus on individual differences, not group differences.  The distributions below are consistent with an approximate difference of 10 IQ points and a standard deviation of roughly 14. 15 Racial Differences: Opportunity  Study by Fagan & Holland (2002)  Black and White participants showed about a 15 IQ point difference.  Experimentally ensured that both Black and White participants were given the same opportunity to learn new word meanings.  45 minutes to learn the meaning of new words.  "Venter" – which means "belly."  In the training, this word was embedded in a sentence like "Tubby had a big, fat venter."  When both groups were given equal exposure to the information being tested, there was no significant difference in their knowledge of these newly learned words (tested 15 minutes after training).  Learning efficiency is an indicator of intelligence in the CHC model. Fagan, J. F., & Holland, C. R. (2002). Equal opportunity and racial differences in IQ. Intelligence, 30(4), 361-387. 16 Perception of a Person’s IQ  Stereotype: people who wear glasses are intelligent.  Leder et al. (2011) study.  Participants rated the intelligence of people based only on their 78 faces.  Conditions: No glasses, full-rim glasses, rimless glasses.  Rating Scale: 7-point Likert (1 = not at all, 7 = very much).  On average, faces with glasses were rated as 9.3% smarter. 17 Attractiveness of IQ  Is intelligence attractive in a prospective mate?  Gignac & Starbuck (2019) had 214 first-year psychology students rank order their preferences in a mate.  Intelligent was rated highly, on average.  However, ‘Kind’ and ‘Personality’ were rated higher Gignac, G. E., & Starbuck, C. L. (2019). Exceptional intelligence and easygoingness may hurt your prospects: Threshold effects for rated mate characteristics. British Journal of Psychology, 110(1), 151-172. 18 Attractiveness of IQ  Higher intelligence is not only seen as appealing for immediate or short-term relationships (sexual attraction) but is especially valued in long-term romantic partnerships (Partner attraction).  There’s a slight decrease in rated attractiveness from an IQ percentile of 90 to 99.  “Threshold effect” (point at which the benefits stop increasing or even decrease)  Stereotypes about the social skills of people who have very high intelligence? 19 Social Skills (Emotional Intelligence)  EI is rated as more attractive than cognitive intelligence.  Still not as attractive as ‘Kind and understanding’  There’s little in the way of a threshold effect for EI. Gignac, G. E., & Callis, Z. M. (2020). The costs of being exceptionally intelligent: Compatibility and interpersonal skill concerns. Intelligence, 81, 101465. 20 Emotional Intelligence  Daniel Goleman (1995)  Ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions as well as recognize, understand, and influence the emotions of others.  Edward Thorndike wrote about ‘social intelligence’ back in the 1920s.  “the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls— to act wisely in human relations.“  The ability to understand people  The ability to manage or interact wisely with people  Emotional intelligence encompasses both the self and others.  Social intelligence was not researched extensively.  Difficult to develop good quality measures. 21 Emotion Recognition in Others  Most face emotion recognition ability tests are too easy.  I’ve been working on a test that includes tougher items 22 Emotional Intelligence Today  Increasingly accepted buy intelligence researchers.  The Cattell-Horn-Carrol model of intelligence now includes it.  “emotional intelligence(Gei) also tentatively meets criteria for inclusion in CHC theory” (Schneider & McGrew, 2018, p. 83) Schneider, W. J., & McGrew, K. S. (2018). The Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory of cognitive abilities. In D. P. Flanagan & E. M. McDonough (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (4th ed., pp 73–163). The Guilford Press. 23 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory  Three primary dimensions  1: Analytical Intelligence: This refers to problem-solving skills and the ability to analyze and evaluate ideas critically.  2: Creative Intelligence: This aspect focuses on the ability to generate novel ideas, deal with new situations, and think innovatively.  3: Practical Intelligence: Also known as "street smarts," this component deals with the ability to adapt to, shape, and select environments to achieve one's goals.  Sternberg’s theory has the least empirical support among theories/models of intelligence (e.g., compared to Spearman’s g factor theory, Thurstone’s Primary Abilities, Cattell-Horn’s Gf-Gc theory). 24 Flynn Effect  Rising IQ scores (~3-5 points per decade) observed in developed countries during the 20th century.  Causes? Linked to biological, social, and educational influences.  Slowing Trend: Some evidence of a slowdown in IQ gains during the last 25 years.  New Findings: Study of 500,000 Danish men (1959-2004) indicates IQ performance peaked in the late 1990s.  Reversal Noted: Post-1990s, IQ scores declined to pre-1991 levels.  Possible Cause: Decline in students entering 3- year advanced-level programs (ages 16-18). Teasdale, T. W., & Owen, D. R. (2005). A long-term rise and recent decline in intelligence test performance: The Flynn Effect in reverse. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(4), 837-843. 25 Digit Span  The Flynn effect has not been observed for memory span.  Gignac (2015) looked at the raw scores for Digit Span across Wechsler scale normative samples.  The Digit Span test has not been meaningful modified over the years.  As can be seen in the figure, human memory span for digits has not improved over nearly 100 years. Gignac, G. E. (2015). The magical numbers 7 and 4 are resistant to the Flynn effect: No evidence for increases in forward or backward recall across 85 years of data. Intelligence, 48, 85-95. 26 Education on Intelligence  There is evidence that formal education may increase intelligence.  Natural experiments (Brinch & Galloway, 2012)  Schooling reform implemented in Norway in the 1960s (staggered across localities).  Increased the mandatory schooling age from 7 years to 9 years.  There was a corresponding increase in IQ scores (measured at 19 years of age).  About 1.5 IQ points (for two years extra education) Brinch, C. N., & Galloway, T. A. (2012). Schooling in adolescence raises IQ scores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(2), 425-430. 27 Intelligence Versus Expertise  Most healthy adults have a digit span between 6 and 8 digits.  With training, Digit Span can be increased massively.  After 230 hours of training, a person increased their Digit Span to 79 digits (Ericsson et al., 1980).  Several other similar cases.  However, most of the research suggests that simply practicing one task extensively does not lead to much change in other cognitive abilities (Redick, 2019).  That is, there’s relatively little evidence for ‘far transfer’ due to training.  Far-transfer: Improvement on tasks that are dissimilar to the one trained, often involving different skills or contexts (e.g., practicing Sudoku enhances general problem-solving skills). Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208(4448), 1181-1182. Redick, T. S. (2019). The hype cycle of working memory training. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(5), 423-429. 28 Intelligence: Defined  “a human’s maximal capacity to achieve a novel goal successfully using perceptual-cognitive processes.” (Gignac & Szodorai, 2024, p. 2)  1: Maximal capacity to solve novel problems, not a person’s typically manifested intelligent behaviour.  Typical = personality  2: Novelty: Solving problems that a person has not previously encountered, rather than those with which they are already.  Tasks that include the participant practicing measure achievement or expertise.  3: Perceptual-cognitive functions;  including attention, visual perception, auditory perception, and sensory integration Gignac, G. E., & Szodorai, E. T. (2024). Defining intelligence: Bridging the gap between human and artificial perspectives. Intelligence, 104, 101832. 29 Artificial Intelligence: Defined  “the maximal capacity of an artificial system to successfully achieve a novel goal through computational algorithms (Gignac & Szodorai, 2024, p. 3).  The only difference between the two definitions:  Humans: perceptual-cognitive processes  AI Systems: computational algorithms Gignac, G. E., & Szodorai, E. T. (2024). Defining intelligence: Bridging the gap between human and artificial perspectives. Intelligence, 104, 101832. 30 Artificial Intelligence: Defined  Large language models undergo extensive training.  GPT-4: trained on a vast dataset of approximately 13 trillion tokens (small unit of text or code)  The capacity of LLMs to solve problems on which they have not been trained has been questioned.  This seriously questions whether current large language models can solve novel problems, which is essential for the demonstration of intelligence (Gignac & Szodorai, 2024). Artificial Intelligence 31  One of the best LLMs (GPT-4o) cannot answer correctly even a very basic non-verbal reason task.  The correct answer is 2. 32 Going back to beginning of lecture 1  "In the realm of AI, brilliance and bewilderment are next-door neighbours.“ (ChatGPT-4o, 2024) 33 Is AI Intelligent?  AI systems like the large language models we have today probably show more achievement or expertise.  There’s less clear evidence that they show true intelligence.  Can still be tremendously useful! 34 Feel free to provide feedback on my lectures  PSYC1102 Personality This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distribu t ed. A/Prof Guy Curtis  At the end of this lecture, Define you should be personality able to: Learning Discuss the Big 5 personality Explain various theoretical perspectives on Outcomes traits personality Outline some Explain how research personality is findings about measured personality  What is personality? What someone’s like. What do you think? Personality Definition: Trait: characteristic or quality distinguishing a person William James (1890) – Principles of Psychology Personality mentioned as a concept of “the self”, e.g., to “personify” Aspects of a person “continuing in time” (p. 371) “Any man becomes, as we say, inconsistent with himself if he forgets his engagements, pledges, knowledges, and habits; and it is merely a question of degree at what point we shall say that his personality is changed” (p. 380) A change in personality may be a marker of mental illness (p. 375) including the observation of multiple personalities (p. 380-388) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Immediate awareness, current thoughts and feelings Stored memories, just under awareness Immoral urges, unacceptable sexual desires, violent motives, etc. 5 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Immediate awareness, current thoughts and feelings Stored memories, just under awareness Immoral urges, unacceptable sexual desires, violent motives, etc. 6  Eysenck’s Theory vs. Introversion Extraversion – ascending reticular activating system (ARS) Neuroticism vs. Stability – ANS H. Eysenck estimated 60-80% of variation in personality was genetic Twin studies indicate the figure may be more like 40% (see M. Eysenck, 2016)* *For more about M. Eysenck critiquing his dad H. Eysenck see the writings of S. Freud ;) 9  If genetics accounts for 40-50% of personality what about the rest? Environmental effects account for the rest of the variation E.g., Unique: sibling and peer interactions Unique effects are more important than shared effects E.g., Shared: family affluence, emotional climate How Many Personality Traits Are There? Allport and Odbert (1936) – lexical hypothesis Webster’s Dictionary (17,953 unique terms) Four major categories Evaluative judgments (5,226; e.g., excellent, worthy) Temporary states (4,541; e.g., afraid, elated) Personality traits (4,504; e.g., sociable, aggressive, fearful) Other terms (3,682; e.g., tall, clever) 4,504 Traits is Still Too Many  Factor analysis The Big 5 OCEAN Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Extraversion (also spelled Extroversion) Agreeableness Neuroticism Is there a Big 6? But that’s English, right? Chinese Personality Dominance Assessment Inventory Studies conducted in (CPAI) Denmark and the Factor “openness” not Netherlands: in CPAI Authoritarianism Factor “Chinese determined to be sixth tradition” not in Big trait Five Filipino personality Indigenous scale of structure personality traits in Big 5 plus 2 more China temperamentalness and Harmony, Ren Qing, self-assurance Modernization, Thrift vs. Extravagance, Ah-Q  The six personality factors of Hot off the the Swahili language Virtue, Imprudence, Negative press Valence, Self-importance, Deceptiveness, and Attentive Conversation This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC  tell when someone’s behaviour is a result of their personality? Measureme Projective Tests, nt of e.g., Rorschach Personali Self-report ty tests, e.g. NEO Projective tests Association, e.g. Rorschach – 10 inkblots. Attempts at consistent scoring standards have been made. Little to no validity.  NEO-3 Assesses the Big 5 243 items (three of which are validity check items). Each item rated on a five- point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Produces profile with bands reflecting “very low”, “low”, “average”, “high”, and “very high” score for each domain Traits, facets, and normative levels Do traits tell us anything practical ly useful? Personality Predictors of Job Performance  Some clinical findings and the Big 5 N linked to mood and anxiety disorders ADHD inattention linked with low C Low C plus high N related to dementia in older adulthood Interact ion of traits Are you a good judge of character? Classmates’ ratings of each others’ personality was accurate for self-ratings of sociability and responsibility (Norman & Goldberg, 1966) Classmates hadn’t met before, it was the first day of class. Can this really be right? 250 students divided into groups of 4 who had never met (Kenny, 1988) Students rated each other on the Big 5 personality dimensions. Strangers' first impressions correlated significantly with self-ratings for the traits "extraversion" and "conscientiousness."  “Thin Slices” – Ambady & Rosenthal (1993) 13 lectures were videoed Participants rated teaching Participants’ ratings of after viewing 3 x 2-second the lecturer correlated silent “slices” of the 0.76 with ratings made lecturer – i.e., 6 sec in by students who had seen total. the lecturer teach every week for a semester.  Feedback welcome  Personality is the stable set Summary of distinguishing psychological characteristics of person Various theories from Freud’s to Eysenck’s have speculated on the role of heredity and the environment. Trait theories based on the lexical hypothesis are influential, leading to the Big 5. Personality can be measured and has practical uses. People can make quick accurate judgements about others’ extroversion and conscientiousness. Social Thinking & Behaviour - 1 Dr Lynden K. Miles School of Psychological Science [email protected] PSYC 1102 – Behaviour in Context – 30.09.2024 A bit about Social Psychology… “…the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others…” G. Allport (1954) “…the branch of psychology that deals with social interactions…”  A bit about Social Psychology… “…the actions of all are nothing more than the actions of each taken separately…” Floyd Allport 1890-1978 vs “…the whole is greater than the sum of it’s parts…” Kurt Lewin 1890-1947  B = f (P,E) “..behaviour is a function of the person in their environment” Lewin (1936)  B = f (P,E) “Every psychological event depends upon the state of the person and at the same time on the environment, although their relative importance is different in different cases” Lewin (1936) Person Environment Mood Norms Thoughts Others Genes Health Beliefs Biases Relationships Situation Terrain Stereotypes Motivation Culture Crowds Politics Physiology Intelligence Feelings Goals Laws Customs Technology Personality Climate  Environment Customs Crowds Norms Person Person Situation Mood Mood Thoughts Thoughts Terrain Genes Genes Health Beliefs BiasesBeliefs Biases Health Stereotypes Motivation Stereotypes Motivation Culture Politics Physiology Physiology Intelligence Intelligence Feelings Goals Technology Feelings Goals Personality Personality Laws Relationships Climate  A complex approach… …so here’s a plan Lectures 1 & 2 Social Thinking *self & others* Lectures 3 & 4 Social Behaviour *contexts & groups*  Social Cognition “…thinking by people about people…” Fiske & Taylor (1991)  Two ‘modes’ of social cognition CONTROLLED AUTOMATIC Slow vs. Fast Can’t be reported Can be reported Flexible vs. Inflexible Precision vs. Estimation Serial vs. Parallel Reasoning vs. Intuition “Figure it out” vs. “Go with gut” 1. Social cognition requires both 2. Both ‘modes’ can be biased  Back to the ‘WHY’ - Attributions Heider (1958) – “common sense psychology” Explanations for everyday events are typically based on either INTERNAL or EXTERNAL factors Why am I so sleepy? Didn’t get home until 3am… Dead boring lecture… Internal External Weiner (1971) 2-dimensional model Stable Ability Difficulty Self-serving bias: Success = internal Unstable Failure = external Effort Luck Helps self-presentation  Actor-Observer bias She’s a bad He’s a bad person! dog! Jones & Nisbett (1978) “…the tendency for actors to make external attributions and observers to make internal attributions…”  Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency for observers to attribute other people’s behaviour to dispositional causes and downplay situational factors That speeding driver is a maniac… (…or are they rushing someone to hospital?) That big tipper is a generous person… (…or are they just trying to impress their date?) "An overgrown man-baby…” (…can you imagine Will Ferrell in Schindler’s List?)  Fundamental Attribution Error Jones & Harris (1967) 60 Ppts read an essay either in 50 favour or against Fidel Castro Attribution Error Half were told the author chose Fundamental Pro-Castro attitude 40 the topic (pro vs anti) Half were told they were 30 assigned it (no choice) 20 Asked to evaluate the ‘true’ attitude of the author 10 Assumed a correspondence between actual attitude and 0 essay content event when they Choice No choice knew it was assigned Pro Castro Anti Castro  Fundamental Attribution Error Factors that influence the FAE Consensus information Does everyone behave this way? If low (internal > external) Consistency information Do they usually behave this way? If high (internal > external) Distinctiveness information Do they behave this way in other situations? Kelleys (1967) If high (internal > external) ‘attribution cube’ A theory of excuses…  Fundamental Attribution Error Four theories of why people commit the FAE: 1. Behaviours are more noticeable that situations 2. People assign insufficient weight to situations 3. People are cognitive misers (take mental shortcuts) 4. Language is more biased towards traits (e.g., nice, mean, introverted, lazy, funny) than situational qualities (e.g., status, circumstance) Thinking back to our ‘theory’ of social behaviour #1 & #4 are environmental causes #2 & #3 are person causes Likely to involve all 4 factors (and more?) Summing up… Social interaction is complex… Social cognition is biased… Social cognition is self-serving… Social cognition is important… Closing thoughts… “ The test of learning psychology is whether your understanding of the situations you encounter has Examine your changed, not whether you have ‘why stories’ learned a new fact ” – catch your attribution errors PROF KAHNEMAN Social Thinking & Behaviour - 1 Feedback: Dr Lynden K. Miles [email protected] PSYC 1102 – Behaviour in Context – 30.09.2024 Social Thinking & Behaviour - 2 Dr Lynden K. Miles School of Psychological Science [email protected] PSYC 1102 – Behaviour in Context – 02.10.2024 A brief recap… B = f (P,E) “Every psychological event depends upon the state of the person and at the same time on the environment” Lewin (1936)  Environment Customs Crowds Norms Person Person Situation Mood Mood Thoughts Thoughts Terrain Genes Genes Health Beliefs BiasesBeliefs Biases Health Stereotypes Motivation Stereotypes Motivation Culture Politics Physiology Physiology Intelligence Intelligence Feelings Goals Technology Feelings Goals Personality Personality Laws Relationships Climate The ‘self’… Self-concept Our self- knowledge or awareness WHO AM I? Public self Agentic self How we present The decisions ourselves we make and interpersonally actions we take Getting to know your ‘self’… Interospective awareness Self-knowledge via “privileged access” to mental states etc. Nisbett & Wilson (1977) argued this knowledge is biased: How generous are you? How aggressive are you? How easy are you to get along with? Compared to a year ago? Self-perceptions show positivity biases.  Getting to know your ‘self’… Perceptions of others’ perceptions Looking-glass self (Cooley, 1902) 1. You imagine how you appear to others 2. You imagine their judgments of you 3. You respond (emotionally) Each step is open to bias Often biases in knowing what others actually think: People misrepresent We discount information we don’t like Getting to know your ‘self’… Social-comparison theory Festinger (1954) Examining the difference between yourself and others “ I just swam 1.5 km in 45 minutes! Is that good? ” Upward comparison – to an Olympic swimmer Downward comparison – to your elderly aunt Often used in ‘aspirational’ advertising…  Social media and the self… Proliferation in sources for social 5.5 comparison = any effect on self? Vogel et al (2014) Person Evaluations Study 1 (correlational approach) 5 ↑FB use = ↓self-esteem (SE) Mediated by upward social 4.5 comparisons Study 2 (experimental approach) 4 Upward (healthy) vs downward Downward Upward (unhealthy) social comparisons Self Target SE took a hit with upward comps. Impression formation First impressions… …can be incredibly fast (