Psychology of Language Notes PDF

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change 3rd Exam Discourse Multiple sentences (spoken, written, or signed), regarding the same topic Sentences in context Natural unit of language Without discourse context, sentences often ambiguous Tells us about cognitiv...

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change 3rd Exam Discourse Multiple sentences (spoken, written, or signed), regarding the same topic Sentences in context Natural unit of language Without discourse context, sentences often ambiguous Tells us about cognitive processes (ex. memory) Two Issues of Discourse 1. How do we comprehend discourse? a. What are the types of discourse? b. Which factors help us comprehend it? 2. How do we store discourse in memory, along with our inferences, elaborations? Types of Discourse Description- describes something in the world thats going on (anecdotes, newspaper articles, social media posts-describing something that happened) (describing something that happened) Narration- descriptive that tells a story from beginning to end (went to the store today to get something) (has more structure, real or fictional stories) Exposition- A way to explain/describe something (explaining concepts, diy videos, instructions, textbooks explaining concepts and theories) Argument- trying to persuade someone (advertisements, political material) Poetic- Conveying emotion and thoughts (ideas) in specific kinds of domains (poems, songs Memory & Discourse Long-term memory Semantic memory Likely used often when processing discourse Spreading activation of related concepts as they are processed can aid in understanding Working memory Need to keep information in WM to connect them and process properly Generate an ongoing mental representation Reading Span (High vs. Low span individuals) related to overall discourse comprehension Memory & Strategy for Text Recall Strategies for improving text recall Active processing Relating new information to old information Building up laid foundation (giving information more meaning)  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Tied into promoting spreading activation during retrieval (actively doing this promotes how we build information and access it more readily) (better than passive processing, less robust and encoded) vs. passive processing Not really thinking about the information, just basic identification (oh yah thats blah blah blah) Active processing leads to deeper level of processing which leads to better encoding and makes it easy to retrieve later Strategies for improving text recall Depth of processing Semantics When we process info at a deeper level (i.e, meaning) understand it better Tailoring the text to the reader’s background knowledge Imagery (tie concept to an image/picture in your minds-creates new level of meaning) Self-reference (things you’ve experienced) We always remember it better when we relate it to ourselves Point is if you can give more meaning to a concept it is stored away better in your mind (creates more routes to information) Encoding Specificity Principle The more closely retrieval cues match the learning conditions/encoding conditions-> more likely retrieval will occur (ex. in the same room where you first heard the concept) Context- physical setting, state (physical or physiological), manner/way State-dependent retrieval Tendency for info to be better retrieved when person in same state (i.e, psychologically & physiologically) during both encoding & retrieval Transfer-appropriate processing Memory likely to transfer better when we encode info in a manner which will match the retrieval cues/condition (taking multiple choice exam, study using multiple choice) Memory & Discourse Discourse Prominence Some entities (units of information) in discourse representation have greater importance over others Local Level (micro) representation Info contained within current sentence Global Level (macro) representation Info contained across multiple sentences Either maintained during and throughout or changed when another entity becomes focus  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Coherent Discourse Coherence Reader’s/listener’s level of understanding (easy to follow?) Primarily tied to semantic relatedness between sentences (they more clear concepts are the more clear it is to listener) How can coherence be increased? Techniques Used by Speakers/Writers Aboutness Themes are made clear (what the story is about) Order of information given-> audience quickly understanding it (builds on to what came before) (build understanding as you go) Given-New strategy 1. Identification given and new information 2. Find the antecedent in memory for given information 3. Attach new information to that spot in memory People can identify information and identify it as new and then find the information that came before and tie it directly into what they are encountering, attached to previous information taken in (tying back to what you read previously) Cohesion Different parts of the discourse connected via strategically used linking words specific words or phrases that are used to help tie things together (strategically linking things together) Semantic similarity Highest coherence when greater semantic similarity among words (similar meaning) Latent Semantic Analysis (model) Computational model using algorithms to calculate coherence by semantic relatedness of words to each other Linking Discourse Elements Referential Processing Entities that refer to same character in a narrative Pronouns Used to refer to entities introduced earlier (proper names, nouns or another pronouns) Model for Anaphor Resolution (resolve that pronoun is referring to something earlier) 1. Binding Pronouns- link back to preceding entity 2. Resolution- evaluating link for acceptability and integrate it into discourse mental representation  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Noun Descriptions (ex. the stranger) Can also link back to previous entities (ex. A man walked into a pub) Inference Inferencing Process of acquiring info about the discourse when that info is not explicitly stated Inferences- specific info acquired Types of Inferences Bridging Require usage of previous knowledge (semantic memory) to link elements Ex. Mr. Smith went to a restaurant. He was seated promptly. He realized that he had forgotten his reading glasses. We use the knowledge of having to read the menu to understand this discourse (inferring to make this make sense) (using knowledge to bridge a gap for something that isn’t fully clear) Backward Most common Current information considered and linked to previous discourse info Ex. Mary got some supplies out of the car. The beer was warm. Linking information to previous information in the discourse (backtracking) Forward Less common Current information leads to discourse prediction Ex. mystery novel (tying to guess what happened) Theories of Discourse Processing Knowledge Structure Approaches Describe how knowledge from discourses organized in memory (how is it organized- LTM) Story Grammar Inspired by Chomsky’s universal grammar Structure of stories could be part of discourse innate knowledge Key pieces to understand discourse are innate abilities Issue Too vague to formally test Proposition (truth statement- a bird has wings T or F) (smallest statement you can evaluate as true or false) Smallest unit of meaning with a truth value Theories using propositions state that we use them to analyze meaning from sentences within discourse Ex. Construction-Integration Theory Schemas & Scripts (Schematic Knowledge) Schema  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular topic or situation Contains what is typical or frequent for situation Schematic knowledge is utilized via top-down processing Script Typical sequence of an everyday event Contained within one’s schema for a given concept Script- you walk in take notes, listen, leave Processing Approaches Describe how we process it in real-time, and construct mental representations in working memory (current-WM) Mental Model Approach Use info from text and own knowledge when developing discourse mental representations representation of the situation we are reading/viewing Situation Models- discourse mental representation When info occurs requiring updating current mental representation, there’s a (speed) cost More time to process that word(s) and the following words Argues that we build a mental model in our brains Structure Building Approach Explain how we construct mental representation of discourse Argues how its built Elements built in Memory during discourse processing Foundation (setting) Theme Characters Two Cognitive Processes Mapping- If incoming info related to current foundation (add on to existing) Links incoming info from discourse to foundation element Shifting- If incoming info not related to current foundation, then build substructure RI-Val Model (three basic processes for building discourse) Activation When new info processes, spreading activation of related concepts in one’s memory Integration Linking new information to prior discourse information Higher relatedness of info, higher activation levels-> more likely to be linked Validation Evaluate info that’s integrated by comparing to other information (discourse, one’s knowledge) (Basically arguing how we add thing to our mental lexicon)  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change The Social Aspects of Language Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics Processing variations due to social settings is vital to understand language Sociolinguistics Study of social variations of language (across and within social groups) Pragmatics Rules (often unwritten) about social conventions used in conversation and other social interactions Example conventions Reality Principle Cooperative Principle Conversation Basics Conversation is a joint action One carried out by a group (two or more) coordinating their actions with each other Different rules & procedures for conversation based on Context (situation) People & number participating Culture Failure to comply or deviate from norms can often lead to misunderstandings, etc. Pragmatic Conventions of Conversation Reality Principle Tend to believe that speaker will utter something to be understood by others (shared reality) Reference to some situation or idea that is real or possible i.e, not “speaking in tongues” Reality principle throw away when someone says “what the hell are you taking about” Principle holds if conversation is confusing but the other person still comprehends what is being talked about Can also be used to fill in missing pieces of information and/or if the speaker misspoke (top-down process) (bigger picture than phonemic restoration effect) Cooperative Principle Assumption of cooperation between the speaker and the listener Four Maxims of a Speaker in Cooperative conversation (allows for cooperation) When violated by speaker, listeners report it being unusual or socially inappropriate Individual differences in how often one violates these Four Maxims Quality Truthful (element of truthfulness in what someone is saying), (even if its not true listener understands it- sarcasm) Relation  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Staying on topic (i.e, not random or “on shuffle”) Quantity Given just the right amount of info (i.e., not TMI), (can be understood and responded to) Manner Clear, precise (the words written or spoke are clear) Speech Acts Speech Act- speaker’s utterance, for specific intention Locutionary Act- final form of utterance (final way it comes out) Illocutionary Force (IF)- speaker’s goal/intention for utterance (original goal) Perlocutionary Act (PA)- effect of utterance on listener (impact) Unintended impact- (ex: offense) due to IF and PA mismatch Indirect Speech Acts Indirect Speech Act Utterance that conveys meaning beyond words used (understanding between two individuals words conveyed don’t match whats said or skip ahead to meaning) (ex. wanna grab lunch, I have class- while it is a reply, the words spoken are not direct response actual- I can’t make lunch, I have class) (Indirect speech act reply) Often used to refuse a request Extreme examples- opposite of intention Irony- words mean opposite intended meaning Sarcasm- different meaning conveyed (via prosodic factor, stress) Small Talk, Humor, Profanity Small Talk “Chit chat” No clear intention or purpose (from either party involved), except to develop social bonding or maintain conversation in social scenarios Content differences across gender and cultures Humor Fundamental human interaction element Cognitive Shift (Latta, 1990) Perception of some event or statement changing from one assumption to a completely different assumption (ex: surprise shift) Something is humorous because it alters top-down expectation of what is going to happen (goes in a different way than you thought) (leads to individual differences- one person finds it surprising another does not) Individual differences due to surprise, appropriateness, and/or attitudes towards speaker communicating the humor Four Styles of Humor (Martin et al, 2003) Affiliative- to build rapport with others (ex. could be used to break tension) Self-enhancing- to make oneself more favorable  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Aggressive- to belittle others (mock) Self-defeating- to demean oneself Broken into two categories: first two (positive) second two (negative) Positive styles-> higher levels of social competence, higher levels of well-being, and lower levels of depression (better outcomes); Negative styles-> poor social competence, lower levels of well-being, higher levels of depression Profanity Cursing- use of swear words Individual Difference in frequency of Profanity Gender Identity (women < men) Personality traits (big five) More often if less agreeable and less conscientious Intelligence Higher IQ > Lower IQ And many more... Social Relationships & Grammar Many languages specifically acknowledge social relationship between individuals Social Distance Distinction between peers, friends, family, hierarchical status In English, via length of utterance and formality of terms Ex: Where’s the pen? Do you know where the pen is? In more formal scenarios (larger distance between individuals) there will be longer utterances used Other languages use specific pronouns to reflect social distance Ex: Informal you (tu) vs. formal you (usted) in Spanish Common Ground Theory Conversational partners should bring to any conversation Their own knowledge and.. Understanding of shared knowledge (common ground) Primary aim of conversation is to grow the shared knowledge Each utterance should consider Nature of relationship, social and cultural norms, etc. Group Differences in Language Phonology, morphology, and/or syntax of a language may change amongst those in social groups over time Jargon (specific phrasing used in specialized groups/domains) Specialized vocabulary amongst professions/occupation Ex. medical, academic corporate Slang Generational difference in words & expressions Each new generation adds different terms  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Even those with shared language can have differences in phonological rules and/or words/expressions Across different nations Within different regions Standard Dialect Formal rules, “proper grammar” used in formal settings Non-Standard Dialect Alterations of rules; more informal Certain dialects thought to regarded with higher or lower class (prestige) Linguistic Profiling Use of dialects and/or accents to stereotype individuals (group in class based on speech patterns and word usage) Can have social and/or occupational consequences Nonverbal Communication Body Language Plays a role due to gender, social distance, etc. Gender Identity Differences ex. “manspreading” Social Distance ex. dominant vs. submissive postures/poses Body languages plays a role in altering communication between people Facial Expressions Universality Hypothesis Emotion expressions have the same meaning for everyone “everyone” understands a smile = happiness Facial expressions can communicate things People are quite accurate at judging emotional expressions of other cultures Exception- isolated, illustrate do not recognize disgust and surprise the same People who’ve never seen the expression do them naturally These born blind can still smile, show anger, sadness, etc. Gestures Bottom line: Non verbal communication plays a role in communication Language & the Brain Hemispheric Differences in the Brain Lateralization of Function (Laterality) Processing differences between the left and right hemispheres Corpus Callosum Thick bundle of white matter connecting the two hemispheres Asymmetrically Aligned (not symmetrically lined up or identical) Left Hemisphere (LH) Larger occipital lobe (more volume compared to right) (visual processing)  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Auditory cortical areas are larger (auditory processing) Superior temporal lobe, includes Wernicke’s Area Right Hemisphere Slightly larger frontal lobe Larger parietal lobe and spatial areas (spatial processing) (Left hemisphere is skinnier and right is shorter and wider) Tests of Hemispheric Differences (How do they process things differently?) Wada Technique (invasive technique, so not common) This technique is used to determine which hemisphere is responsible for speech output Done to patients undergoing brain surgery Barbiturate (usually sodium amytal) injected into carotid arteries (leading from heart to brain) (numbs functions) Blood supply is unilateral-> sodium amytal anesthetizes one hemisphere Divided Visual Field (DVF) Different stimuli presented to each visual field Briefly present information on one side it will be processed by the opposite hemisphere (ex. left field, processed in right hemisphere-eventually communicate to the other side) (isolating each hemisphere in this task) Unilateral presentation One side at a time Bilateral presentation Both sides at once Initial processing occurs in opposite hemisphere from side of visual presentation LVF-> RH; RVF-> LH Dichotic Listening Task Different messages presented simultaneously to each ear Purposely present stuff in both ears but decide what to present Auditory pathways have both contralateral (opposite side) & ipsilateral (same side) pathways Research shows that when presented with information simultaneously, ipsilateral pathway shuts down (contralateral pathway is processed first) Thus, Left ear-> RH; Right ear-> LH Split-Brain Patients Surgical procedure that cuts majority of the corpus callosum Separates the two hemispheres Done on patients with severe epilepsy Prevents the seizures from spreading to the other hemisphere Testing Split-Brain Patients (Sperry & Gazzaniga) DVF Studies  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Theories of Hemispheric Difference Dominant vs Non-dominant (this was the first distinction-but wrong) Right is non-dominant Verbal vs. Non-verbal (yes, but this is too simplistic) Right is nonverbal Routine vs Novel Right is novel Local vs. Global (best) Right is more global (big picture processing) (left is processing smaller details) Hemispheric Differences & Language These differences account for about 95% of the population (for 5% is the opposite) Left Hemisphere Word production Word Comprehension & Recognition Simple recognition and processing of a word Literal Language (a word as written or spoken is what the left hemisphere is good at recognizing) Fine Coding (local, one-to-one, individualistic) (Beeman) (processes double meaning words based on context) Right Hemisphere Non-literal and figurative Language ex. Metaphors, Similes Humor Prosody ex. sarcasm Pragmatics Course Coding (Beeman) (processes double meaning words equally) Neural Organization of Langugage via Lesions Patients Early language research in cognitive neuroscience and neuroscience and neuropsychology stems from lesion patients Localization of Function Specific regions of cortex had specific roles in language processing Aphasia Loss of language-processing ability Damage to different brain regions involved in language-> different aphasias (typically left hemisphere damage) Wernicke-Geschwind Model of Language ”Classic” Neuropsychological Model of Language in the Brain (left hemisphere- for most) Three major areas Broca’s Area- Speech production (output) Wernicke’s Area- Speech comprehension (input)  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Concept Center- Location in brain where meanings stored (not an one place) Older “version” of mental lexicon (now know it’s probably not in one place) Damage to any of these areas leads to cut off of communication pathways between the areas Broca’s Aphasia (acquired deficit) Damage to Broca’s Area-> Expressive Aphasia Speech is meaningful- but difficult and effortful Telegraphic speech- nouns, verbs, not many functional words Vocabulary access limited Formation of sounds often laborious (halting and effortful) May understand speech and be able to read but limited in writing (clearly convey what they are trying to say and understand their deficit) (trying to say words is just hard, production) Wernicke’s Aphasia Damage to Wernicke’s Area-> Receptive Aphasia Poor comprehension, speech sounds normal- but no meaning (“word salad”) Patients don’t seem to know that they have a speech problem Paraphasias- Errors in producing specific words (produce words but not the right word for what they are trying to say) Semantic- sub similar meaning words (ex: barn for house) Phonetic- sub similar sounding words (ex: fable for table) Neologisms New words which follow language rules (Primary damage to specific areas- Broca’s and Wernicke’s) Other Aphasias (damage to connecting areas between Broca’s and Wernicke’s) Conduction Aphasia Disconnection syndrome Damage leads to inability to rely info from one brain area to another Damage to Arcuate fasciculus connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s area Unable to repeat what was heard Comprehension and spontaneous production is normal They can respond to a question but not able to repeat the question It’s not that simple! Wernicke- Geschwind model is a nice starting point, it’s much more complex (model is limited to output and input) More elaborate language processing occurring within both hemispheres Different areas within Broca’s area process different aspects Anterior/front- semantic processing (derive meaning) Intermediate/middle- semantics and syntax Posterior/back- phonological (sound) and syntactic processing  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Modern Views on Neural Organization of Langauge Bottom line is it’s a lot more complicated Visual Word Form Area Lateralized to LH Early stage of word processing Activity Active around 200ms after word presentation Regardless of spatial position, orientation More active during tasks requiring orthographic processing Real words vs. non-words Prosody in the Brain Production and Comprehension, primarily in the RH Prosody is mainly processed in the RH (additional pieces that add to the context of what was said) Evidence Aprosodia Impaired production and/or comprehension of prosody (problems with prosody) More often associated with RH damage (analog to LH speech areas) Aprosodia Types Motor Prosodic version of Broca’s area (production problem) Difficulty producing prosodic factors (stress, intonation, rate) Sensory Prosodic version of Wernicke’s aphasia (understanding problem) Difficulty comprehending prosodic factors Global Prosodic version of global aphasia Difficulty producing and comprehending prosody Other Language Disorders due to Brain Damage Extra Information for next disorder: Agnosia- inability to recognize and classify stimuli Auditory Verbal Agnosia (AKA Pure Word Form Deafness) Unable to recognize spoken words (auditory form loss) (only when spoken to) Due to bilateral (left and right) temporal lobe (LH + RH?) Can read, write, and speak normally No auditory deficits (i.e., normal hearing) Can use and recognize signs in sign languages normally Intact meaning of the word Auditory comprehension is impaired Sign Languages Very similar distinctions in brain activity & regions for sign language as spoken & verbal language  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Broca’s area- production Wernicke’s area- comprehension More Right Hemisphere activation during sign language tasks (more motor and spacial processing, compared to spoken language) Perhaps due to more visual/spatial requirements of sign language Multilingualism in the Brain Age of acquisition of additional languages related to how language brain areas organized Earlier acquisition-> more “typical” lateralization of language processing occurs (for all acquired languages) Earlier acquisition-> more overlap in areas involved & overall organization for all acquired languages Later acquisition-> more bilateral and frontal region activity Multilingualism Language & Thought Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language related to how we think about our world How does language allow people to think about the world around them (big question that this perspective tries to tackle) Strong Version of Hypothesis (linguistic determinism) People cannot experience or understand a concept (observing, thinking) if no word for it in a language You cannot understand something in the environment if there is no word for it (language determines your thinking about your world) Not supported by research Weaker Version of Hypothesis (linguistic relativity) Language influences our thinking about an experience or concept Language relatively influences thinking, but does not determine it (language and thought are connected, but one does not cause the other) Research supported Language & Thought: Emotion in Language Not all emotions represented in all languages Some emotion words unique to cultures i.e, Amae (pleasurable dependence without the need to reciprocate); Schadenfreude (shameful joy, taking pleasure in the suffering of others) Does that mean these emotions are not experienced by those in different cultures? No No, culture helps define categories Levy (1984) Hypercognized Numerous words, concepts, etc. exist for emotions that are important to a culture  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Hypocognized Lack of words or detailed concepts for emotions that are unimportant or deemphasized to a culture Types of Multilingualism Monolingualism (ability) & Monolinguals (person) Only knowing one language Bilingualism (ability) & Bilinguals (person) Knowing two languages Trilinguals People knowing three languages Polyglots People who know five or more languages Bilingualism Most studied types of multilingualism For many countries, typical for citizens to know at least two languages Terms to Know L1- first language acquired L2- second languages acquired L3, L4, etc. Types of Bilingualism Simultaneous Two languages learned/acquired at the same time (roughly) Can be defined as occurring by 3yrs of age Two-language households or communities Sequential (second-language acquisition) Acquisition of L2 (second language) after L1 (native language) Often via formal schooling or other necessities (work, etc.) Criteria often excludes folks learning L2 beyond 12 years of age Range is often thought of as between ages 5-9 (before sensitive period) Balanced Bilinguals People who self-report being equally skilled in both languages Maintaining fluency in both takes regular practice Many bilinguals report being more skilled in one language over the other Dominant language can be either L1 or L2 L1 Attrition- “Loss” of L1 fluency L2 dominance due to living and working in country where L2 is used more frequently Dialects of A Language Are dialects of the same language counted as one language or multiple languages? Unresolved question  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Mutual Intelligibility Criteria for whether a dialect can considered a “different language” If speakers of different dialects of a language can (generally) understand each other Developmental Perspectives Critical and/or Sensitive Period Hypothesis Acquiring language is critical before puberty Case Studies- Genie, Isabelle Not clear of validity of evidence, given potential confounding elements of these cases ex. other cognitive impairments? (affecting language acquisition other than age) Age of Acquisition Best predictor of L2 skills Bilingual Advantage? (results are mixed so? potential benefits) Cognitive Benefits Metalinguistic Awareness (meta= one’s own awareness of) (awareness of their language abilities) Learning two languages implies that children now have two ways of referring to objects and actions in environment Cognitive Control & Attention Ability to selectively attend to one stimuli and ignore others Selective attention and inhibition Task switching better for bilinguals when they have simultaneous demands upon their attention (conflict tasks) (switching back and forth between things) Problem-Solving and Creativity More evidence pointing towards bilingual children performing better than monolinguals on verbal and non-verbal measures (more flexible in their thinking) Older Adults & Dementia Risk Bilinguals may have additional “protection” from developing dementia Those that develop dementia, bilinguals receive their diagnosis four years later vs. monolinguals There is debate about the validity of these claims Some recent research shows it might be overestimated Regardless, there is no evidence of any disadvantages Bilingual Language Processing Language Transfer Languages influencing each other Positive Language Transfer Helping influence of one language on processing of another Cognates Pairs of words similar in (1) orthography (spelling) and phonology (pronunciation) and (2) mean the same concept (i.e., werk-work)  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Mutual Intelligibility Criteria for whether a dialect can considered a “different language” If speakers of different dialects of a language can (generally) understand each other More often that different language have many translation equivalents (two different words meaning the same thing) Negative Language Transfer Interference of one language on another False Cognates (false friends) Similar spelling & pronunciation, but refer to different concepts Ex. “gang”- hallway in German, group in English (if words mean the same thing it helps) Accented Speech L1 phonology and patterns of articulation influence L2 pronunciation (accented speech) Choosing correct pronouns between L1 and L2 L1 uses same words for he/she; L2 uses different ones Bilingual Language Processing: Organization in Memory Bilingual Translation Task Inform about bilinguals’ memory organization Task Shown words in one language Ask for translation equivalent for other language Response Time and Accuracy measured Results Longer to translate L1 into L2 equivalents Faster to translate L2 into L1 equivalents Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM) of Bilingual Memory L1 and L2 have separate memory representations Strength of links between lexical rep. & concepts is stronger for L1 L2 links are weaker during acquisition, but strengthen over time (takes longer to recognize/access information) L2-> L1 links stronger likely due to needing to generate L1 words when L2 presented (links are strong making it easier to access) (hard to get into L1 but once your there it moves quick) L2-> L1 link strength related to age of acquisition Earlier acquisition= stronger links Bilingual Language Processing Tip of the Tongue States Bilinguals experience it more frequently vs. monolinguals Activation of both languages during planning (interfere with finding the correct word)  PSYCHOLOGY NOTES Applied Behavior Analysis and Change Code Switching Including vocabulary and phrases from multiple languages within one utterance (combine words/utterances from both languages) Can create a “mixed language” (ex. Spanglish)