Nature and Psychology of Language - Week 3 (Sept 16) PDF

©unsplash.com NATURE AND PSYCHOLOGY OF Week 3 (Sept 16) LANGUAGE GUIDING QUESTIONS ❖ How can we define and describe language? ❖ What is it about language that makes us human? ❖ What can be the neuro-biological basis for language? ❖ How can children acquire their first lan...

©unsplash.com NATURE AND PSYCHOLOGY OF Week 3 (Sept 16) LANGUAGE GUIDING QUESTIONS ❖ How can we define and describe language? ❖ What is it about language that makes us human? ❖ What can be the neuro-biological basis for language? ❖ How can children acquire their first language(s) rapidly and effortlessly, whereas for adults, learning a new language becomes such a daunting and laborious task? What does this tell about language and human mind? 2 What does it mean to know a language? To know a language = to know a sound/word/rules 3  關切的重點在語⾳的物理、⽣物、⼼理等具象本質，與語⾳的實際 ⽤途、表達意義無關 Phonetics & phonology KNOWLEDGE OF SOUNDS 研究不同的聲⾳元素是如何被串接、組 合起來⽽形成⼀個特定的語⾔（如英 語），並且表達出特定的意義 ❖ Inventory of sounds in a language nicht, noch in German; this, that in English 發⾳ ▪ Articulation of sounds: where & how ▪ Sequence of sounds in the words ©britannica.com English: [nuk]; [snuk]; *[sknuk]; *[mnuk] Chinese: [mao]; [miao]; *[aum]; *[yaum] 4  研究單詞（word）的內部結構和其形成⽅式 Morphology KNOWLEDGE OF WORDS iconic: one-to-one mapping (we know the meaning immediately) ❖ Linguistic symbols are non-iconic. ▪ No direct connection between word and meaning ▪ Form (sounds) and meaning (concept => arbitrary human language is arbitrary in nature constantly evolve 詞彙結構 ❖ Mental lexicon: ⼼靈詞庫 sounds, lexical structure, 語義 grammatical function, semantic & pragmatic information of words 5  Human language only Syntax KNOWLEDGE OF RULES  Let’s look at one example: 6 KNOWLEDGE OF RULES Unconscious rules that we acquire as young example of creativity in language Steven Pinker children – Grammar An example by Steven Pinker: “They both bore it as though in deliberate flatulent exaltation...” finite syntactic rules, infinite use Faulkner wrote, “They both bore …” Guinness noted that Faulkner wrote, … Pinker mentioned that Guinness noted that ‘generative grammar’ Faulkner wrote, … hierarchical (not linear) Who cares that Pinker mentioned that creativity or productivity rules of grammar -> able to generate many new sentences Guinness noted that Faulkner wrote, … 7 EXAMPLES OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION (WITH/WITHOUT HUMANS) ❖ Dogs: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mr2kGT6i7e4 ❖ Cats: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMZieHkEUSU ❖ Bees: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12Q8FfyLLso&t=3s ❖ Gorillas: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNuZ4OE6vCk ❖ Parrots (Alex the Parrot): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGT5JEeOryQ 8 Honey bee dance Humpback whales Atlantic bottlenose dolphins Alex the parrot Washoe the chimpanzee Koko the gorilla Animal language: lack of creativity Human language: can express novel thoughts; we can make up sentences that convey new ideas. This cannot be said of other animal communication systems Kanzi the bonobo (cf. Jo Napoli, D. & Lee-Schoenfeld, V., 2010) CHARLES HOCKETT’S (1960) 13 (LATER 16) DESIGN FEATURES nature of human language To highlight four of them: VADDC ▪ Vocal-auditory channel ▪ Arbitrariness linguistic symbols ▪ Discreteness /p/ v /f/ pat v fat /p/ v /b/ pig v big ▪ Displacement ▪ Creativity 10 THINK ABOUT THIS SCENARIO: process of learning different language can be different/ evolve Maisy makes lemonade Step 1: Pick up lemons Step 2: Squeeze the lemons Step 3: Add water Step 4: Add sugar Step 5: Stir 11  first language acquisition acquisition of language is not a standalone process  Language is acquired as a stage in  Language is too complex and general cognitive development, distinctive to be learned by general manifesting the more general skill cognitive means. ability to use symbols, such as words of symbolic representation (e.g., Jean Piaget). learning language involves different parts of cognitive abilities  There is a system underlying language (=Universal Grammar); innateness we are born with learning language 12 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG) Underlying rules (principles & parameters) governing language behavior A blueprint that all languages follow that forms part of the child’s innate capacity for language learning. Biologically endowed human language faculty; Children are hard-wired with UG. 13 FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN LEFT IS RIGHT, AND RIGHT IS LEFT Left cerebral Right cerebral hemisphere hemisphere An enduring question: Which parts of the brain are responsible for human linguistic abilities? majority of right-handed / lleft-handed people: left hemisphere (cf. Fromkin, et. al., 2018) 15  Phrenology: the shape and size of the skull (頭⾻) could reveal a person's character and mental abilities LOCALIZATION The brain is not a homogeneous mass; parts of it are specialized for specific tasks  Franz Joseph Gall – phrenology skull model LANGUAGE 16 effects of severe brain injury on personality and behavior damage to specific brain areas could lead to profound changes in personality and behavior evidence of localization of brain THE GRUESOME CASE OF PHINEAS GAGE frontal lobes BROCA’S AREA responsible for speech production vocal apparatus remaining intact and the abil- ity to understand language apparently remain- ing unaffected ❖ Broca’s aphasia (expressive aphasia) (cf. Yule, 2014; Friederici, 2017) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JWC-cVQmEmY Paul Broca (1824 – 1880) 18 WERNICKE’S AREA cause: stroke fluent language that makes little sense, and a great impairment in the ability to comprehend language, although hearing is unaffected can’t processing of meaningful ideas ❖ Wernicke’s aphasia (receptive aphasia) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oef68YabD0 Carl Wernicke (1848 – 1905) 19 AND TODAY… BA44: Syntactic computation BA45: Semantic processes Neuroanatomy of language (Friederici, 2017, p.6) 20 SPECIALISED BRAIN AREAS left part of the brain damage of this part (disconnection syndrome) -> difficulties repeating language, while comprehension and production remain otherwise unimpaired connect broca speech and wernicke* when we speak that word, Broca area activated when we read a word When we hear a word language comprehension word is to be spelled out Geschwind’s model of language processing (cited in Carroll, 2008) HANDEDNESS & CEREBRAL DOMINANCE human: majority is left-cerebral dominance for language (even for left-handers) and strong right-handedness dominance  Lateralization of language:  The left hemisphere is dominant for language in most right-handed people (approx. 90% of the population).  Even in 60-70% of left-handers, the left side of brain is either dominant for language or very much involved (‘mixed’ dominance) (Crystal, 2010).  Interestingly, though many species may also show left-cerebral dominance in producing sounds (e.g., birds), it seems that only humans show very strong specific right- handedness dominance (Harley, 2014, p. 53-54). 22  connect left and right hemisphere Sensory information is received in the contralateral (opposite) side of the brain from the side of the body from which it is sent. can say ‘banana’ What would happen to a split-brain patient? Can s/he produce the word ‘apple’? And ‘Banana’? 23 IT SEEMS THAT, ❖ Different language skills involve different parts of the brain - modularity. The process of lateralization develops rapidly between the ages of 2 and 5 years, then slows down, being complete by puberty. ❖ Language is lateralized to the left hemisphere, and the left hemisphere appears to be the language hemisphere from infancy on - lateralization. ❖ However, during the early stage of language development (i.e., children), under certain circumstances, the right hemisphere can take over many of the language functions normally resided in the left hemisphere - brain plasticity (cf., Carroll, 2008; Fromkin, et al., 2018). 24 A DIVERSION: DUCKS & IMPRINTING Question: Is there such a timing for humans? Konrad Lorenz (1903 – 1989) 25 FERAL AND ISOLATED CHILDREN  CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS The idea of a critical period for the devel- opment of particular processes is not unique to humans During the critical period, language acquisition proceeds easily, swiftly, and without intervention. There is a period early in life in After the period, the acquisition of grammar which we are especially prepared is difficult and, for most individuals, never fully achieved. to acquire a language - from birth Children deprived of language during this to middle childhood. critical period show atypical pattern of brain lateralization. (Fromkin, et al., 2018, p. 461) 27 FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION do not need to memorize ❖ Memorizing sentences? - No ❖ Mimicking? – No ❖ Explicit instruction ? - No ❖ Exposure to the language (s) – Yes! To 'trigger‘ the inborn ability/innate template to acquire grammar = UG/ Language Acquisition Device (LAD) To enable an appropriate social, interactional context ❖ Exposure to the language (s) early – Arguably yes?! 28 REFERENCES Berwick, R. C. & Chomsky, N. (2016). Why only us: Language and evolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Carroll, D. W. (2008). Psychology of language (5th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth. Crystal, D. (2010). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Friederici, A. D. (2017). Language in our brain: The origins of a uniquely human capacity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Fromkin V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2017). An introduction to language (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Publishing. Jo Napoli, D. & Lee-Schoenfeld, V. (2010). Language matters: A guide to everyday questions about language (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yiu, C. Y. (2014). The typology of motion events: An empirical study of Chinese dialects. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter Mouton. Yule, G. (2014). The study of language (5 th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pinker, S. (2012). Linguistics as a window to understanding the brain. Video retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-B_ONJIEcE 29