Psychology Midterm Notes

Psychology midterm -Different types of psychology -Clinical psychology Focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional and behavioral disorders career paths: clinical psychologist, therapist, counselor in hospitals -Cognitive psychology...

Psychology midterm -Different types of psychology -Clinical psychology Focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional and behavioral disorders career paths: clinical psychologist, therapist, counselor in hospitals -Cognitive psychology Studies mental processes like memory perception and problem solving career paths: research scientist, cognitive therapist -Developmental psychology Examines how people grow and change throughout their lives career paths: child psychologist, educational consultant, policy developer -Social psychology Studies how individuals are influenced by social interactions and group dynamics career paths: social psychologist, public relations -Industrial psychology Studies workplace behavior to improve productivity and employee well-being. career Paths: Organizational consultant, human resources manager, corporate trainer. -Educational psychology Psychology midterm 1  Focuses on how people learn and best practices for teaching career paths: educational psychologist, curriculum developer, researcher -Sports psychology Applies psychological principles to enhance athletic performance and well-being. career paths: Sports psychologist, team consultant, athletic trainer, rehabilitation specialist. -Counseling psychology Helps individuals navigate personal, social, and emotional challenges to improve well-being and life satisfaction. career paths: Counseling psychologist, career counselor, mental health counselor, school counselor -Neuropsychology Focuses on understanding the relationship between brain function and behavior, often involving assessment and rehabilitation of individuals with brain injuries or neurological disorders. It combines knowledge of brain anatomy, cognitive functions, and psychological principles to address various conditions. career paths: Neuropsychologist, brain injury specialist, research positions in hospitals or academia. -Forensic psychology Applies psychological principles to legal and criminal justice systems, often involving the assessment of individuals involved in legal cases. It includes working with law enforcement, attorneys, and the courts to provide expert testimony or psychological evaluations. career paths: Forensic psychologist, expert witness, roles in law enforcement agencies. Health Psychology Focuses on how psychological factors influence health and illness. Psychology midterm 2  career paths: Health psychologist, wellness coach, positions in public health organizations, hospitals. -Schools of psychology: group of psychologists or people who share similar fundamental views -Structuralism: a school of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements or structures of the mind Founded by William Whunt Break downs mental processes into their smallest possible components and analyses them Rigorous and scientific introspection: asking research participants to describe what they experience as they work on mental tasks *Limitations: participants inability to report experiences because of their unconscious mind -Functionalism: the purpose and function of human thoughts and subsequent behaviors Focused on the higher purpose of consciousness and behavior The core ides of mental states (beliefs, pain, desire) are only present for their functional role *Limitations: no longer in use now, we can’t determine which psychological characteristics our ancestors had -Structuralism vs Functionalism Structuralism—> structure of the mind Functionalism—> function of the mind Structuralism—> primary method: introspection Functionalism—> focused on application Psychology midterm 3  -Psychodynamic Psychology: an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories Founded by Freud Early childhood experience is the most important factor in human development Conscious—> thoughts, perceptions Preconscious—> memories, stored knowledge Unconscious—> instincts, fears, trauma, violence Freud states that personality is composed of three elements: the id, ego, superego Id: part of mind that wants instant gratification and acts upon basic desires ego: balances id desires with reality by making rational desires Superego: a conscience, reminds us of societal roles and morals -Psychoanalysis: a deep exploration of the person’s early experiences stored in the unconscious mind, revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis *Limitations: tests of those theories doesn't always support their proposals -Behaviorism: a school of psychology that states that it’s not possible to accurately study the mind, studies behaviors instead Founded by John B Watson learning can explain all behaviors believed that stimuli could produce specific responses Pavlov classical conditioning theory Skinner” used the ides of stimulus and response along with application of rewards or reinforcement Behaviorists agree with the nurture approach Psychology midterm 4  -The cognitive approach: a field of psychology that studies mental processes including perception, thinking, memory and judgement the cognitive approach was given more life because of our ability to see the brain in action using neuroimaging techniques The processing causes the involved are of the brain to increase blood flow States that our brain is playing tricks on us, we have difficulty with contradicting stimuli -Cognitive approach vs Behaviorism the cognitive approach provided a distinct alternative to behaviorism -Social-Cultural psychology: the study of how social situations and cultures influence thinking and behavior Conformity: change of beliefs and behaviors to fit in the most crucial part is social norms; the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving being perceived as appropriate due to customs, traditions, values -Research psychology is important because it helps us understand human behavior and mental processes -The scientific method is a step by step process used to explore questions, test ideas, and find answers -Theory: a well-supported idea that explains something based on evidence existing theories are modified on the basis of collected data when a better theory is found it replaces the old one -Hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables Psychology midterm 5  -A good hypothesis should be: testable: tested through experiments or observations Specific: clearly defines the variables involved and their expected relationship Falsifiable: can be proven wrong, there must be evidence that contradicts it Based on existing knowledge: should be grounded in previous research or theories Clear and concise: stated in straightforward language -3 types of research design: Descriptive research; used to describe characteristics of a population Correlational research; designed to discover relationships among variables Experimental research; a change of variable and a measurement of the effect of this change -Independent variable(IV): variable that is manipulated by researcher -Dependent variable(DV): variable measured to asses the effect of IV -Control group: a group that doesn’t receive the experimental treatment used for comparison -Research ethics Research in psychology may cause some stress, harm, or inconvenience for the people who participate in that research. Psychology has a history of unethical research Therefore, the APA published outlines for ethical research which include: 1. Prevent harm to the research participants. 2. Cost-benefit analysis; if the potential costs of the research appear to outweigh any potential benefits that might come from it, then the research should not proceed. 3. Researchers must protect the privacy of the research participants. 4. Participants have free choice regarding whether they wish to participate in research 5. informed consent; is designed to explain the research procedures and inform the participant of their rights during the investigation. Psychology midterm 6  *Deception: Occurs whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it. -Cadavers the examination of human cadavers to study brain anatomy and pathology. Provides a direct look at the brain's structure and organization. Dissection: Allows researchers to explore brain regions in detail. Histology: Involves preparing brain tissue samples for microscopic analysis to investigate cellular structure and connections. -Ethics and Considerations: Respectful handling and use of cadavers are essential. Consent for the use of cadavers for research purposes must be obtained. lesion: damaged area of the brain as a result of strokes, falls , or accidents -Electrical activity (EEG ) a technique that records the electrical activity produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of electrodes that are placed around the research participant’s head *EEGs are useful for understanding brain abnormalities. -Neuroimaging Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to create images of brain activity in each brain area. The fMRI detects the amount of blood flow in each brain region, and shows neural activity Psychology midterm 7  -Research on animals Used to investigate brain function and behavior through controlled experiments. Psychologists sometimes intentionally create lesions in animals to study the effects on their behavior. -Consciousness Consciousness refers to the state of being aware of and able to think and perceive one's own existence, thoughts, and environment. Awareness of surroundings. Attention to thoughts and feelings. The subjective experience of life. -Levels of Consciousness Full Consciousness: Being fully aware and engaged with the present moment and surroundings. Subconscious: Thoughts and memories that are not currently in the conscious mind but can be accessed. Unconscious: Concepts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness and can influence behavior. -Theories of Consciousness Biological perspective; focuses on the brain’s role in consciousness, brain activity correlates with conscious experiences Psychological perspective; examines how consciousness relates to mental processes, including perception, thoughts, and emotions Philosophical perspective; explores the nature of consciousness, the “mind-body problem” and subjective experience Psychology midterm 8  -Altered States of Consciousness Any mental state that differs from normal waking consciousness -Sleeping and dreaming Sleep is a natural, recurring state of rest characterized by altered consciousness, decreased sensory activity, and inhibition of bodily movements. Importance: Essential for physical health, cognitive function, emotional well-being, and overall quality of life. The patterns of sleep are recorded by monitors, such as an EEG -Stages of Sleep Non-REM Sleep Stage 1: Light sleep; transition between wakefulness and sleep. Stage 2: Moderate sleep; heart rate slows, and body temperature decreases. Stage 3: Deep sleep; crucial for physical restoration and recovery. REM Sleep: Characterized by rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming. Important for emotional regulation and memory consolidation -Sleep Cycle A full sleep cycle typically lasts about 90 minutes and includes multiple cycles throughout the night. Most deep sleep occurs in the first half of the night. REM sleep becomes longer in the second half of the night. Stage 1 (N1) - Light Sleep Psychology midterm 9  Duration: Lasts for a few minutes (typically 1-7 minutes). -Characteristics: Transition between wakefulness and sleep. Easily awakened; may not even realize they were asleep. Muscle activity slows, and the eyes move slowly. Brain waves begin to slow down from their daytime wakefulness patterns (alpha waves). Stage 2 (N2) - Moderate Sleep Duration: Lasts about 10-25 minutes during the first cycle and increases with each cycle. -Characteristics: Accounts for about 45-55% of total sleep in adults. No eye movement; heart rate and body temperature decrease. Sleep spindles (brief bursts of brain activity) and K-complexes (sudden large waves) occur, which play a role in memory consolidation and protecting sleep from disturbances. Stage 3 (N3) - Deep Sleep (Slow-Wave Sleep) Duration: Lasts about 20-40 minutes during the first cycle and typically decreases in duration with each subsequent cycle. -Characteristics: Represents the deepest and most restorative sleep stage. Difficult to awaken; if awakened, individuals may feel groggy and disoriented (sleep inertia). Characterized by delta waves (slow brain waves) and minimal muscle activity. Essential for physical restoration, growth, and immune function; plays a vital role in repairing and rebuilding bodily tissues. -REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement) Psychology midterm 10  Duration: Lasts about 10-20 minutes in the initial cycle and increases with each subsequent cycle, making up about 20-25% of total sleep. -Characteristics: Eyes move rapidly beneath closed eyelids; breathing becomes irregular. Brain activity is similar to wakefulness (beta waves), leading to vivid dreaming. The body experiences temporary muscle paralysis (atonia) to prevent acting out dreams. Important for emotional regulation, memory consolidation, learning, and creativity. -Sleep Disorders -Insomnia: persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep. Insomnia can be caused by: Physical disorders Psychological problems Changes in sleep patterns -Sleep apnea: a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing that last at least 10 seconds during sleep. -Narcolepsy: a disorder characterized by extreme daytime sleepiness with frequent episodes of “nodding off.” narcolepsy sufferers move directly into REM -Sleep paralysis is a phenomenon in which a person, either falling asleep or awakening, temporarily experiences an inability to move, speak or react. It is often accompanied by terrifying hallucinations -Somnambulism (sleepwalking) in which the person leaves the bed and moves around while still asleep. Sleepwalking is more common in childhood. -Sleep terrors: a disruptive sleep disorder, most frequently experienced in childhood, that may involve loud screams and intense panic. The sufferer cannot wake from sleep even though they’re trying to. Psychology midterm 11  -REM sleep behavior disorder: a condition in which people engage in vigorous and bizarre physical activities during REM sleep in response to intense, violent dreams. *studies suggests that adults should get between 7 and 9 hours of sleep per night. -Dreams: the succession of images, thoughts, sounds, and emotions that passes through our minds while sleeping. The content of dreams generally relates to everyday experiences and concerns, and frequently fears and failures. -Dream theories we dream primarily to help with consolidation, or moving information into long-term memory The activation-synthesis theory: dreams are the brain’s interpretation of the random firing of neurons in the brain stem. Psychology midterm 12