Psychology Final Study Guide PDF

Lecture 10 Social Psychology First Impressions: We form schemas quickly and automatically based on very little information (physical appearance, body language, facial cues - Key characteristics when forming impressions includes o Trustworthiness/warmth o Competence/dominance (where they are on socia...

Lecture 10 Social Psychology First Impressions: We form schemas quickly and automatically based on very little information (physical appearance, body language, facial cues - Key characteristics when forming impressions includes o Trustworthiness/warmth o Competence/dominance (where they are on social hierarchy) Primacy effect: tendency to remember info we encounter first. information presented first (at the beginning of a list) influencing your overall perception. (Rate Jack from adjectives) Factors that limit accuracy of first impressions: Impression management: (put our best foot forward) strategies used to influence impressions . - Self promotion – to be seen as competent - Ingratiation – to be seen as likeable - Exemplification – to be seen as dedicated - Intimidation – to be seen as dominant - Supplication – to be seen as needy Heuristics: False consensus effect: tendency to use the self as an anchor and overestimate the extent to which other people’s beliefs and attitudes are similar to our own (overestimate the commonality between you and other ppl) Heuristics: A metal shortcut to get an impression of someone, Transference: applying the schema of someone you already know to understand someone new Confirmation bias: we are eager to verify our belifes but less inclined to seek evidence that disporves them Accuracy of first impressions: Not accurate because it may pick up on facial expressions influenced by fleeting emotions not representative of personality. May be able to track generalities (ex: extreversion) studies have shown that we are able to make accurate impression however this requires more effort and deliberate processing, we are better at this when we are motivated Attribution Theory: explanations we assign to the cause of an event, action or outcome. How people perceive/attribute the cause of experiences and behaviors (internal/external). - Dispositions/internal factors/internal attribution o Traits, values, attidudes, belifs, skills, inttentions of the individual o Eg. Bill gates is smart and hard working - Situations/external factors/external attribution o Events, weather, aspects of context, circumstance, other people's actions, chance o Eg. Bill gates had rare opportunities Self-serving bias: People want to maintain their esteem Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to assume that people’s actions are more the result of internal dispositions than situational context. (passenger asking to move seat on a plane we think they are rude and intitled but they may have a disability) Individualistic society: Self-centered/non cooperative countries (i.e. USA) are more likely to disregard situation factors for internal factors. Collectivistic society: Harmony valued over individual agency (more sensitive to situational factors) Stereotypes: schemas that automatically associate a specific group with certain characteristics (can be positive or negative -> this phase doesn’t involve judgement) - Occasionally some truth but often overgeneralized - Learned & perpetuated from our own culture and environment we grow up in o Parents/ teachers/peers o Mainstream media - Cause of inaccuracy o Bias in media o Applying groups characteristics to an individual Prejudice: negative bias against a person based on their perceived group Discrimination: negative behaviors directed against people due to group membership (often stemming from prejudice attitudes) Social categorization: Human naturally categorize the world into different social groups based on a shared characteristic shared common attributes (age,gender, beliefs, school, personal preference, hobbies) - Saves time and mental energy - Often is accurate and useful if you have no other information about a person In-group favoritism: giving preferential treatment to others in the same group as you Out- group derogation: treating the outgroup with hostility, making negative evaluations about outgroup Out-group homogeneity effect: “They are all the same; we are all unique and diverse” (because more time has been spent getting to know individuality of ingroup) Racism/modern racism/symbolic racism: tendency to redirect one’s prejudice toward a racial or ethnic group to the policies that might benefit that group. (sudden concern about dress code could be merely a “veiled” form of anti-Muslim bias) - Overt racism: hate crimes, racial slurs, swastikas - Symbolic racism: indirect forms of discrimination, such as social policies Robber’s Cave Study: Sherif 1961 Rattlers vs Eagles boys camp competition study. (Bonding phase, hiking swimming etc, competition phase, baseball, tug of war, had prize, reconciliation phase) Contact hypothesis: Stereotype reduced by spending time and getting to know members of the group. (Collaboration) Realistic conflict theory: groups competing for same resources (land, water, food) negative attitudes towards the other group develop Social identity theory: people maintain this positive attitude for their ingroup (in-group favoritism) seeing outgroups in a negative light (out-group derogation) Explicit attitudes: easy to report, conscious, can be updated (do you like dogs? Yes) Implicit attitudes: quick, automatic, difficult to update (positive/negative associations) Elaboration likelihood model: two ways of being persuaded. Central (deep, logical thinking, eg. Picking a laptop based on status and expert reviews) or Peripheral route (superficial eg. Choosing a new laptop based on factors such as looks or brand) Cognitive dissonance theory: conflict between actions and attitudes (believe recycling is important, but don’t recycle = either views or behaviors must change so they align in your self perception) Post- decision dissonance: After a decision is madekm we will feel dissonance regarding the possibility of it being wrong. We will often change our perceptions to reduce this dissonance and make the decision seem more attractive (discomfort from believing there might have been a better option than what we chose) - Festinger 2/3 asked if they would lie to the next participate and tell them it wasn’t that boring they got played 1 or 20$ - Receiving 1$ was not justification to lie therefore they changed there attitudes to alleviate dissonance Social influence: people are influenced by the idea that other people are watching them. Social norm: behaviors, traditions, beliefs and preferences - Commonly accepted and reinforced - Change and evolve over time - Not adhering to social norms can result in a faux pas Conformity: Process of adopting/mimicking/internalizing the behaviors and preferences of those around you (changing our behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms) Obedience: Changing our behavior in response to commands by a perceived authoritative figure Informational social influence: conform to others a based on the desire to behave correctly or gain an understanding of the world. Normative social influence: people conform t to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group Social facilitation: working twards a goal where individual efforts are evaluated - Group project where everyone gets a grade biased on effort Social loafing: not pulling your weight, individual efforts will not be evaluated - Group projects where everyone gets one grade Milgram Studies: Study on blind obedience to someone presenting authority in a white coat. Asked to shock another human for every incorrect answer and knew that they were in pain but continued because they were instructed to do so Replicating Milgram Today: Burger Study: Replicated Milgram study in 2009 (Voltage max at 150V). Obedience may have decreased since initial study- 70% as opposed to 90% in Milgrams’s, but not Extinguished Instrumental aggression: goal is to achieve something (social, emotional, physical) harmful behavior has a purpose ie.war Hostile aggression: Reactive -> Goal to hurt another person (road rage) Theories of aggression: - Gender o Men more likely to direct aggression o Woman more likely to use indirect or passive forms of aggression (potentially due to socialization) - Neural influences o Complicated behavior, no one area controls it o There are neural systems, activation causes hostility increase and vice versa - Enviromental influences o Painful incidents ▪ Animals would attack when in pain causes from frustration o Heat/hot weather ▪ Uncomfortable ▪ Heat increases to more crimes o Crowding ▪ Stress from feeling like you don’t have enough space o Social provocation ▪ Eye for an eye o Social learning ▪ Bobo doll Study bandura ▪ Filmed some adults/ models being aggressive not being aggressive and some kids saw no models ▪ Kids who saw aggressive models were more kiley to be aggressive twards the dall Prosocial behavior: Actions intended to benefit others (helping, sharing, cooperating, comforting) Altruism: behaviours intended to benefit others without expectations of anything in return Reciprocal altruism: actions that benefit others may get repaid in the long run Norm of reciprocity: give and take (i help you you help me) Bystander effect: occurs when people are less likely to come to the aid of a victim when other observers are present than when they are alone. - diffusion of responsibility: You may think that someone else has already gone for help or is better qualified to provide help. - pluralistic Ignorance: If no one else is taking action, you (and the other people nearby) might assume everything is okay. - overcoming the effect: after one person goes to help many more people go after and follow Mere exposure effect: the more you see a novel stimulus, the more you like it, easier to cognitively process familiar stimuli. Halo effect: belief that attractive people possess other positive qualities Attachment theory: Infants develop strong emotional bonds with caretakers as survival strategy. Attachment styles: Secure (trsuting/worthy 55%), Anxious(clingy, negative views 20%), Avoidant (self-reliant 25 %), Fearful avoidant (abandonment issues) Attachment styles vary in each specific relationship Lecture 11 personality: Definition of personality: stable (across time across place across situation way of thinking, feeling and acting i.e.. Stable cognitions emotions and behaviors - what counts? Intelligence, athletic ability, sexual orientation, enjoyment of reading, racism? - sometimes people are forced to change there personality in diff settings/ contexts e.g. teacher has to be an extrovert) - Reification: occurs when an abstract construct are treated as if they are real or tangible Historical Approaches: Bumps - Phrenology: Judging character by reading “bumps” on the head Gall argued that skull bumps were a sign of specific brain enlargements Psychograph: machine measure bumps on the head and give ratings for each of the 35 personality categories from the brain map Historical Approaches: Blots: In contrast to objective tests, which are often obvious about what is being studied, projective tests were used to uncover hidden thought processes eg. Rorschach Ink blot (what you see), Draw a Person, Person-House-Tree, Thematic Apperception Test (shown a pic and asked to tell a story) Historical Approaches Bodies: − Fluid types (Galen) – temperament related to four bodily fluids o Sanguine: excess of blood = vigor and athleticism o Choleric: (expression of pissed off) excess of urine = easily angered o Melancholic: excess of feces = depressed or sad o Phlegmatic: excess of mucus = tired or lazy (when your sick you get tiered) − Body somatotypes (Sheldon) o Endomorph: overweight = jolly, extraverted, slow o Mesomorph (alpha male): muscular = athletic, aggressive o Ectomorph: skinny = thinking, withdrawn, fearful Contributions/Critiques of Psychoanalytic theory: - many of Freud’s ideas not empirically supported, psychoanalytic theory contributed to answering fundamental questions a human personality o popularized idea that thoughts can occur below our conscious awareness. o The importance of early development. starting point for later theories of child development. o o The influence of mind on body. Freud thought the psychological processes of the mind could account for medically inexplicable disorders of the body Freud’s basic proposition that people could be cured of psychological disorders or relieve their symptoms by talking to someone about their experience was absolutely groundbreaking. Freud’s theory: (three levels of awareness (consciousness mind, preconscious mind, unconscious mind) 1. The conscious mind what you are presently aware of, what you are thinking about right now 2. preconscious mind is stored in your memory that you are not presently aware of but can gain access to 3. The unconscious mind is the part of our mind of which we cannot become aware a. contains primary motivations (actions/feelings) – our biological instinctual drives (such as for food and sex) and repressed unacceptable thoughts, memories, and feelings, especially unresolved conflicts from our early childhood experiences Id, Ego, Superego: - Id (child) immediate gratification pleasure principal Pleasure principle of Id o “original personality”, only part present at birth and the part the other two parts of our personality grow out of ▪ Is entirely unconscious ▪ Includes biological instinctual drives, the primitive parts of our personality located in our unconscious • Life instincts for survival, reproduction, and pleasure • Death instincts, destructive and aggressive drives detrimental to survival ▪ it demands immediate gratification without the concern for the consequences - Ego (parent) reality principal given your situation o Starts developing during the first year of life to find realistic and socially acceptable outlets for the id’s needs ▪ finding gratification for instinctual drives within the constraints of reality (the norms and laws of society) ▪ ego is unconscious and part of the ego is preconscious and conscious - Superego (in-between child and adult) - morality principal o Represents one’s conscience and idealized standards of behavior in their culture ▪ threatening to overwhelm us with guilt and shame ▪ The demands of the superego and the id will come into conflict and the ego will have to resolve this turmoil within the constraints of reality ▪ To prevent being overcome with anxiety because of trying to satisfy the id and superego demands, the ego uses what Freud called defense mechanisms, processes that distort reality and protect us from anxiety Unhealthy personalities: - develops when we become too dependent upon defense mechanisms. When the id or superego is too strong (overly focused on pleaser or overly moralistic), When the ego is too weak (bad mediator) Freuds psychocosial states of personality development: - erogenous zone area of the body where id’s pleasure-seeking is focused during a stage of psychosexual development o change in erogenous zones designates the beginning of a new stage - Fixation portion of the id’s pleasure- seeking energy remains in a stage because of excessive gratification or frustration Anal-Retentive/expulsive personality: - Parents try to get child to have self-control during toilet training o If child reacts to harsh toilet training by trying to get even with the parents by withholding bowel movements, an anal-retentive personality with the traits of orderliness, neatness, stinginess, and stubbornness develops o anal-expulsive (act of Rebelion) personality develops when the child rebels against the harsh training and has bowel movements whenever and wherever he desires Phallic stage Conflicts: - Oedipus conflict, boy becomes sexually attracted to his mother and fears that his father (his rival) will find out and castrate him - Electra conflict, girl is attracted to her father because he has a penis; she wants one of her own and feels inferior without one (penis envy) Neo-Freudian theories of personality: - Caral Jungs collective unconscious o collective unconscious: universal human experiences that we all share o These experiences are manifested in archetypes, which are images and symbols of all the important themes in the history of humankind (e.g., explorer, mother, hero) o Archetypes represent personality styles each one has a primary desire (e.g., to connect with others) o Notions of collective unconscious and archetypes are more mystical than scientific and cannot be empirically tested - - Alfred Adlers striving for superiority o “striving for superiority” – overcome the sense of inferiority felt as infants (totally helpless and dependent state) o A healthy person learns to cope with these feelings, becomes competent, and develops a sense of self-esteem o Inferiority complex felt by those who never overcome this initial feeling of inferiority Karen Horney and the need for security o Focused need for security, rather than a sense of inferiority o child’s caregivers must provide a sense of security for a healthy personality to develop or else neurotic personality types will develop o Three neurotic personality patterns ▪ Moving toward people- A compliant, submissive person ▪ Moving against people- An aggressive, domineering person ▪ Moving away from people- A detached, aloof person Humanistic theories: - developed in 1960s from psychoanalytic theories (too deterministic) and behavioral theories (too mechanical) - humanistic approach emphasizes conscious free will and uniqueness of the individual person, and personal growth o Developed by Maslow who studied lives of very healthy and creative people Maslow's self-actualization: Characteristics of self-actualized people (who have met all their needs) include: o Accepting of themselves, others, and the nature of world for what they are o Being independent, democratic, and very creative o Having peak experiences, (deep insight, wonder, awe, or ecstasy) Rogers Self Theory: - Rogers o Our parents up conditions of worth, via behaviors/attitudes for which give us positive regard o Meeting conditions of worth continues throughout life, and people develop a self concept of what others think they should be - Unconditional positive regard – acceptance and approval without conditions o Empathy from others, and having others be genuine with respect to their own feelings, is necessary if we are to feel self-actualized Trait theories of personality: - Personality traits are individual dimensions (rang from extremely low to extremely high) - Trait theorists use factor analysis and other statistical techniques to tell them the number and kind of traits - Two models o Hans Eysenck, using factor analysis, argued for 3 trait dimensions o Using the lexical hypothesis, and a factor analysis of all the adjectives from a dictionary, modern studies converge on the “Big Five” factors Big 5 Theory: - 5 basic personality traits (OCEAN) o Openness: whether a person is open to new experiences o Conscientiousness: whether a person is disciplined and responsible o Extroversion: whether a person is sociable, outgoing and affectionate o Agreeableness: whether a person is cooperative, trusting, and helpful o Neuroticism: whether a person is unstable and prone to negative emotions and insecurity Personality disorder (Prevalence): - 9-15% of population (rates much higher in psychiatric hospitals, outpatient clinics) - Prevalence of individual PDs is around 1-5% Personality disorder (comorbidity): - Comorbidity among PDs very high --> People with a PD have an average of 6 comorbid PDs Comorbidity with other disorders is also very high Personality disorder (Sex/age): Sex Differences - - - Prevalence is generally higher among women Depends on the PD Higher in Men: o Antisocial PD o Narcissistic PD Higher in Women: o Dependent o Histrionic o Borderline Could be due to gender bias in the diagnosis of PDs (e.g., histrionic and sex) Changes across age and sex o Most PD most prevalent in early/ middle life o Woman/ men roughly equal in older age Personality disorder (General Criteria): - - - DSM has 4 General Criteria for PDs: A pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from expectations of the individual’s culture in at least 2 of the following areas o Cognition, Affect, Social, Impulse Control pattern is inflexible and pervasive across different situations It causes clinically significant distress or impairment The pattern is stable and it has early onset (traced back to at least adolescence or early adulthood) Note: The PDs are what we call ego-syntonic ◦ People feel that their personality disorder symptoms are a part of who they are ◦ Often have no desire to change them ◦ Although they may be really want to change their consequences (e.g., Paranoid PD, losing jobs) Most other disorders are ego-dystonic ◦ The symptoms do not feel like part of the individual ◦ Patient is much more eager to get rid of them ◦ E.g., panic disorder Personality Disorders (DSM Disorders): Cluster A - Odd/Eccentric - Paranoid • Schizoid • Schizotypal Cluster B – Dramatic/Erratic • Antisocial • Borderline • Histrionic • Narcissistic Cluster C – Anxious/Fearful • Avoidant • Dependent • Obsessive-compulsive A-Paranoid PD: - Pervasive suspiciousness and distrust of others - Tendency to see self as blameless - On guard for perceived attacks/betrayal by others - Hostile world attribution bias - Reads hidden insults in benign remarks - Holds on to a grudge - Recurrent suspicions about fidelity of partner/spouse A-Schizoid PD: no desire for people - Pervasive detachment from social relationships - Low pleasure - Flat emotional expressions - Preference for solitary activities - Few friends/family - Indifferent to praise or criticism A- Schizotypal: - Interpersonal problems - Eccentric/odd - Strange beliefs - Unusual perceptions - Inappropriate affect - Lack of close friends - Extreme social anxiety - Believe they have magic powers or engage in magic rituals B – Antisocial - Violate others’ rights - Aggressive - Impulsive - Illegal behaviors - Irritable/angry - Deceitful - Lack of remorse B – Borderline PD: instability of emotions - Unstable emotions, relationships, identity - Impulsive behavior - Feelings of emptiness - Flash anger - Recurrent suicidal behaviors, gestures, or threats (or self-mutilating behaviors) B – Histrionic PD: attention seaking - Excessive attention-seeking behavior - Excessive emotionality - Dramatic/theatrical - Center of attention - Uses physical appearance to draw attention B – Narcissistic PD - Grandiosity - Preoccupied with unlimited success - Requires excessive admiration - Sense of entitlement - Exploits others - Believes others envy them - Lacks empathy C – Avoidant PD - Extreme social avoidance, introversion, loneliness - Does not want to be alone but fears socializing (being rejected, criticized, or embarrassed) - Feels socially inadequate C – Depended PD - Extreme need to be taken care of - Clingy and submissive behavior - Lack of self-confidence - Constant helplessness - Needs a lot of advice and reassurance C – Obsessive compulsive PD: perfectionism - Perfectionism - Excessive concern for order and control - Preoccupied with rules - Rigid and stubborn - Devoted to work - Does not trust others to do work, takes control: "If you want something done right..." Personality disorders (diagnostic problems): - Is it ever right to say someone's personality (who they are as a person is discarded? - Culture and norms are extremely important and always changing - Extremely high comorbidity is PD even district constructs - Stigma is a big issue PD end up on permeant record Not otherwise specified is most common PD Polythetic criteria e.g. 4/8 symptoms required for a PD means 2 ppl could have same PD but share no symptoms Psychopathy checklist (factor 1 and 2): - Relationship between psychopathy and Anti-Social Personality disorder Locus of control: the degree to which people believe that they have no control over the outcome of events in their lives Learned helplessness: occurs when we develop an attitude of giving up because we have had past experience of being unable to control things. The self-concept: broad network of mental representations that people have of themselves. Narcissism: self–centered personality style characterized as having an excessive preoccupation with oneself and one's own needs, often at the expense of others. Lecture 12 Disorders and Treatment Normal vs Abnormal: many things that people think, feel, and do may be abnormal without necessarily being symptoms of a disorder. Hard to define abnormality Definition of Disorder: - Deviance: Thoughts, behaviors and feelings that are not in line with normal/accepted standards - Distress: Upsetting behaviours/thoughts/feelings that cause suffering - Dysfunction: Thoughts behaviors and feelings that disrupt one’s regular routine/ day to day function - Dangerous: Thoughts that may lead to harm/injury of self or others Biopsychosocial model: psychological disorders result from an interaction between biological factors, psychological experiences and ones social environment. DSM-5: latest version of ‘Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders’. disorders (w/ culture specific disorders and importance of context). Gives specific information about - Age of onset, risk factors, course of disorder/evolution of the disorder over time, prevalence rates, gender differences, cultural considerations for diagnosis, differential diagnosis Problems with classification systems: diagnosis of metal disorders is a subjective process that relies on self report, no biomarker for metal disorder that exists, consider Everday problems of living a metal disorder grief/ feeling sad, does not appropriately account for comorbidity Overdiagnosis, Stigma, Self-fulfilling prophecy, - Gender dysphoria in the DSM-5, maintained in the DSM to allow trans ppl to be finally covered, subjectivity in the inclusion and exclusion Stigma: people with psychological disorders and their family members are often viewed negatively (labels change how we perceive someone and how they perceive themself) Anxiety Disorders: characterized by a feeling of intense worry, nervousness, or unease. Anxiety-related disorders are the most common of all of the psychological disorders—the lifetime prevalence for these disorders is 29 %. (Most commonly found in women) General anxiety disorder: anxiety that is not related to any one specific object or situation (as with specific phobias). continuous, pervasive, and very difficult to control. Belief that there is a benefits to worry. Persists for 6 months Panic disorder: occurrence of unexpected panic attacks (come out of nowhere -> fear of having another panic attack) Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Trauma or stressor related disorder with symptoms lasting over 1 month. (flashbacks, nightmares, dissociation, arousal/anxiety), avoidance of external reminders of the event and feeling associated with the event, exaggerated beliefs about others, altered arousal and reactivity (hypervigilance, irritability. Risk factors: genetics, history of psychological problems, tendency to avoid unwanted thoughts, lack of social and cognitive resources Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: chronic psychological disorder that afflicts about 2% of people. (worsens over time & starts in early life) thought action fusion, magical thinking (2 events are related when not), Amygdala more active - Obsessions: unwanted and disturbing thoughts (infection, strangling children) - Compulsions: ritualistic actions performed to control the obsessions (cleaning, hand washing, organizing, mental ritual) Bipolar Disorder: mood disorder characterized by manic (excited and energetic) episodes, often in addition to depressive episodes, with normal periods interspersed - Bipolar disorder 1: at least one manic episode, no major depressive episode is required - Bipolar Disorder II: at least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode is required Mania is characterized by abnormally elevated or irritable mood, accompanied by increased activity or energy •Inflated self-esteem •Psychotic symptoms (sometimes!) •Decreased need for sleep •Racing thoughts and distractibility •Increase in goal-directed activity •Increased risk-taking •Increased talkativeness Depressive disorder: Persistent depressed mood and/or lack of interest/pleasure in activities accompanied by •Change in sleep •Change in appetite •Change in the speed of movement (extreme irritation or slowness) •Loss of energy •Diminished ability to concentrate •Indecisiveness •Feelings of worthlessness and guilt •Recurrent thoughts of death •Causing significant stress or impairment in functioning Vulnerability-stress models: individual vulnerabilities + stressful experiences = depression • Depression has a genetic component, and the search for specific genes continues • Studies of serotonin are inconclusive Attributional theory of depression: ppl who attribute things as internal (my fault) vs external, global (affects everything) vs specific. And stable (always going to happen) vs temporary are more prone to depression Cognitive habits of depression: executive dysfunction, impaired learning/memory, reduced attention/concentration, and lower processing speed Schizophrenia: Loss of contact with reality and breakdown of normal functions of the mind (bizarre perceptions) Positive psychotic symptoms (smth added): thoughts or behaviors not in healthy people (delusions)(hallucinations of voices and shadows)(disorganized behaviour - etc giggle or cry out of the blue) (abnormal Moter behaviors eg. Catatonic behaviors(lack of response) Negative Psychotic symptoms (behaviors lost since the onset of the disorder): Loss of motivation to take care of oneself (avolition), Flat or blunted affect, Reduced speech production (alogia), Asociality (don’t socialize and don’t want to socialize) Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapy: analyzing unconscious processes through different methods. Identifies themes/patterns in behavior and thoughts. Focus on interpersonal relationships and development Resistance: in psychoanalysis It is a patients self censorship or avoidance of certain topics Humanistic/ Person-Centered Therapy: Empathy, Genuineness, Positive regard w/ patient & therapist, therapist shows acceptance and support of client without judgement fostering an environment of self-exploration and personal growth. - no hierarchy between client and therapist, non-directive, therapist does not guide and advise client who is considered expert on themselves. Goal to increase individual insight. Cognitive Behavior Therapy: major practice today. Interactions w/ feelings, behaviors, cognitions. What we feel affects what we think which affects how we act (identify/change) negative thoughts, emotions the hardest to change but can change how we feel by changing how we think/act) - First wave: classic behavioral therapies o Classical and operant conditioning (a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior )systematic desensitization o Focus is on behaviors not thoughts - Second wave: incorporation of cognitions o Rise of mainline cognitive- behavioral therapy - Third wave: less about change and more about acceptance o Acceptance and commitment therapy o Mindfulness based cognitive behavioral therapy o Dialectical behavior therapy Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: approaching negative thought with acceptance and without hanging on to thoughts, discourages client avoidance (meditation practice of Buddhism) Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on disputing thoughts - ACT hypotheses that psychopathology stems from the clients efforts to escape unpleased feeling using avoidance behaviors ex. Substance use disorders, eating disorders, panic disorders, PTSD, OCD - ACT components (psychological flexibility at the focus) o Acceptance: reducing the motivation for experiential avoidance o Cognitive de-fusion: watching negative thoughts with the awareness that they are only thoughts o Self as Context: ones identity is separate from ones thoughts o Being present: mindful awareness of thought and feelings o Values: clarifying values o Committed action: setting tasks to live in accordance with values - ACT Critique of CBT o CBT too mechanistic (the assumption that behaviors can be understood in the same way physiological processes are understood) humans do not change thoughts like computers o Too focused on symptoms change; attention should be moved to changing the context and broadening focus of change o CBT developed in science lab (issues with evidence based approach) o Empirical support for hypothesized mediators of change is weak - CBT critique of ACT o Act is not new is instead a reframing of CBT o Cognitive restructuring and diffusion share similar processes ▪ Restructuring is incompatible with thought suppression ▪ Disputing both decreases experiential avoidance and diffusion “thought as fact” o Exploring schemas and rules is similar to exploring values in ACT Cognitive Distortions: - All or nothing(black or white thinking), - Over-generalising, - Mental Filter(only paying attention to certain types of evidence), Disqualifying the positive (discountng the good things that happened or that you have done for some reason) jumping to conclusions, Magnification/minimization (blowing things out of proprotion or inappropately shrinking something to make it seem less important) emotional reasoning (I feel embarrassed so I must be an idiot labelling ourselves or other people personalization (blaming yourself or taking responsibility for something that wasn’t completely your fault. Or conversely blaming other ppl for something that was your fault) Cognitive Restructuring: Process of identifying and disputing irrational thoughts/cognitive distortions to change the way you think (write them down, identify moods, reason it out). Core component of CBT. (questions include: where were you?, emotion and feeling, negative automatic thought, evidence that supports the thought, evidence that doesn’t support that thought) Behavioral Activation: Part of CBT that helps combat depression (do it without motivation). Increase involvement, instruct someone to engage in activities eg. Jogging, walking, reading the newspapers. Systematic Desensitization: Slowly exposing yourself to an anxiety-producing situation so that you can regulate slowly w/o being traumatized Dodo Bird Effect: All therapies produce equivalent outcomes (just going to therapy will make a difference) Common Factors: - Client characteristics (positive expectancies) - Therapist Qualities (cultivate hope, warmth/positive regard, empathy and collaborative), - Relationship elements (development of alliance) - Treatment structure (techniques, exploration of inner world) - Change processes (opportunity for ventilation, practice of new behavior, awareness)