Psychology chapter 7 Cognition.docx

**Psychology chapter 7 Cognition: Thinking, intelligence and language** Summary of Kosslyn\'s Fictional Island and Cognitive Processes Thinking, or cognition, refers to the mental activities involved in processing, organizing, and communicating information. It encompasses memory and decision-makin...

**Psychology chapter 7 Cognition: Thinking, intelligence and language** Summary of Kosslyn\'s Fictional Island and Cognitive Processes Thinking, or cognition, refers to the mental activities involved in processing, organizing, and communicating information. It encompasses memory and decision-making, often characterized by two systems: System 1 (fast, intuitive thinking) and System 2 (slow, analytical thinking). Mental imagery, a key component of cognition, allows individuals to create picture-like representations of objects and events in their minds, aiding in tasks such as recalling and navigating familiar spaces. In Kosslyn\'s research, participants visualized an imaginary island with landmarks. The time taken to mentally \"scan\" distances between these landmarks demonstrated that larger distances in the mental image correlated with longer reaction times, highlighting how we interact with mental images similarly to physical ones. Functional neuroimaging supports this, showing overlapping brain activity during mental imagery and actual perception, but indicating that imagery generates a weaker perceptual experience. Additionally, concepts and prototypes play crucial roles in thinking. Concepts are mental categories that allow for efficient thinking without needing to recall every specific instance. They can be formal (rigid definitions) or natural (fuzzy categories based on experience). Prototypes serve as the most representative examples within these concepts, shaped by personal exposure and cultural context. For example, apples might serve as a prototype for \"fruit\" for many in the U.S., while coconuts might be more prototypical for someone from a tropical region. Overall, these cognitive tools facilitate organization and problem-solving in our daily lives. **Summary of Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies** **Overview:** Problem-solving and decision-making are vital cognitive processes for college students and involve various strategies. Effective problem-solving requires identifying a goal and systematically working towards it, often using mental tools like images and concepts. **Methods of Problem Solving:** 1. **Trial and Error:** This involves trying multiple solutions until one works, like figuring out a forgotten PIN by testing combinations. 2. **Algorithms:** These are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed correctly, such as mathematical formulas. 3. **Heuristics:** These are general rules or educated guesses that simplify decision-making but do not always guarantee accuracy. Examples include: - **Representativeness Heuristic:** Categorizing based on shared characteristics, which can lead to stereotypes. - **Availability Heuristic:** Estimating probabilities based on how easily examples come to mind, potentially skewing perceptions of risk. 4. **Working Backward:** This method involves starting from the desired outcome and figuring out the steps needed to reach it. 5. **Subgoals:** Breaking larger goals into smaller, manageable tasks can make problem-solving less overwhelming. 6. **Insight:** Sometimes, solutions arise suddenly in what's called an "aha!" moment, often after a period of unconscious processing. **Barriers to Problem Solving:** 1. **Functional Fixedness:** This refers to the inability to see alternative uses for an object, limiting creative problem-solving. 2. **Mental Sets:** This is the tendency to stick to familiar problem-solving methods that have worked before, even when they might not be effective. 3. **Confirmation Bias:** This involves seeking out information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence, which can lead to flawed decision-making. **Conclusion:** Effective problem-solving and decision-making require a variety of strategies and awareness of cognitive barriers. By employing different methods and recognizing potential obstacles, individuals can improve their problem-solving skills. **Summary of Creativity** **Definition and Importance:** Creativity is the ability to solve problems by combining ideas or behaviors in novel ways. Unlike convergent thinking, which seeks a single correct answer, creativity involves divergent thinking, where one generates multiple possibilities from a single starting point. **Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking:** - **Convergent Thinking:** Focuses on finding one solution using logic and existing knowledge. For example, comparing a pencil and a pen. - **Divergent Thinking:** Encourages exploration of various uses for an item, such as identifying multiple uses for a pencil beyond writing. **Characteristics of Creative Thinkers:** Creative individuals often experience productive divergent thinking during automatic tasks (e.g., walking, swimming), which allows their minds to make connections unconsciously. This openness leads to innovative solutions and reduces barriers like functional fixedness. **Enhancing Creativity:** Creativity can be cultivated through practices such as: - **Keeping a Journal:** To capture ideas as they arise. - **Mind Mapping:** Visual representation of ideas connected to a central concept. - **Brainstorming:** Generating numerous ideas without initial judgment. - **Freewriting:** Writing continuously about a topic to allow ideas to flow freely. **Attributes of Creative People:** Research suggests that creative individuals often possess: 1. Broad knowledge across various subjects. 2. Openness to new experiences and unconventional thinking. 3. Independence and value for their unique perspectives. In summary, creativity involves divergent thinking and can be nurtured through specific techniques, enhancing problem-solving abilities and fostering innovative ideas. **Summary of Intelligence** **Definition:** Intelligence is defined as the ability to learn from experiences, acquire knowledge, and effectively use resources to adapt to new situations or solve problems. **Key Concepts:** - **g Factor:** Represents general intelligence, or the ability to reason and solve problems. - **s Factor:** Refers to specific intelligences, excelling in particular areas like music or art. **Theories of Intelligence** 1. **Spearman's Theory:** - Proposed that intelligence consists of a general ability (g) and specific abilities (s). - Suggested that excellence in one type of intelligence often predicts overall intelligence. 2. **Gardner's Multiple Intelligences:** - Howard Gardner identified multiple types of intelligence, originally seven and later expanded to nine, including: - **Verbal/Linguistic:** Language skills - **Logical/Mathematical:** Reasoning and problem-solving - **Musical:** Musical ability - **Visual/Spatial:** Spatial orientation - **Interpersonal:** Understanding others - **Intrapersonal:** Self-awareness - **Naturalist:** Recognition of nature patterns - **Movement:** Body coordination - **Existentialist (tentative):** Questions about existence 3. **Sternberg's Triarchic Theory:** - Robert Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: - **Analytical Intelligence:** Problem-solving through analysis. - **Creative Intelligence:** Dealing with novel concepts and finding new solutions. - **Practical Intelligence:** \"Street smarts\"---applying knowledge to everyday situations. 4. **Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory:** - Integrates various theories into a comprehensive framework, distinguishing between crystallized intelligence (knowledge gained from experience) and fluid intelligence (problem-solving in new situations). - Comprised of general intelligence (g) and 16 broad abilities related to cognitive functions. 5. **Neuroscience Theories:** - Links brain structure and function to intelligence, particularly focusing on the parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT). - Emphasizes the role of working memory in fluid intelligence, affecting various cognitive functions. **Conclusion** The concept of intelligence encompasses a range of theories, each providing different perspectives on how intelligence is defined and measured. From Spearman\'s g factor to Gardner\'s multiple intelligences and Sternberg\'s triarchic theory, these frameworks highlight the complexity and multifaceted nature of human intelligence. **Summary of Measuring Intelligence** History and Purpose: Intelligence testing began in the early 20th century to identify students needing additional educational support. This was initiated by French psychologist Alfred Binet, who aimed to distinguish between fast and slow learners. Key Tests of Intelligence 1. Binet\'s Mental Ability Test: - Created by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon. - Designed to identify children who required remedial education. - Focused on \"mental age\" to determine a child\'s learning capacity relative to their age group. 2. Stanford-Binet Test and IQ: - Lewis Terman adapted Binet\'s test and introduced the intelligence quotient (IQ). - IQ is calculated by the formula: IQ=MACA×100IQ=CAMA​×100, where MA is mental age and CA is chronological age. - While effective for children, IQ scoring becomes less meaningful for adults, leading to the use of age-group comparison norms in modern tests. 3. Wechsler Tests: - Developed by David Wechsler for different age groups, addressing the limitations of the Stanford-Binet test for adults. - Includes three main tests: - WAIS-IV: For adults. - WISC-V: For children. - WPPSI-IV: For preschoolers. - Wechsler tests feature both verbal and performance (nonverbal) scales, providing an overall intelligence score as well as scores for specific cognitive domains. Conclusion Intelligence testing has evolved significantly, with various methods developed to accurately measure cognitive abilities across different age groups. The Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests remain two of the most widely used tools in this field today. **Summary of Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test?** **Evaluating Test Quality:** Not all tests are equally effective; their quality can be assessed through two key criteria: reliability and validity. 1. **Reliability:** - Refers to the consistency of test results over time. A reliable test should yield similar results for the same individual on repeated occasions. - For example, if a personality test provides drastically different scores on two occasions, it is deemed unreliable. 2. **Validity:** - Measures whether a test truly assesses what it claims to measure. Validity can also refer to how well the test score predicts real-world outcomes (ecological validity). - An example is a driver's license test, where passing indicates the ability to drive safely in real-life scenarios. **Test Construction Elements** 1. **Standardization:** - The process of administering a test to a large, representative sample to establish norms for comparison. - All subjects should take the test under the same conditions. 2. **Norms:** - The established scores from the standardization group serve as benchmarks for evaluating individual test performance. - Most intelligence tests are designed around a normal distribution curve, with the average score typically set at 100. **Cultural Bias in Testing** - Tests may inherently reflect the cultural context of their designers, leading to potential disadvantages for individuals from different backgrounds. - For instance, questions based on specific cultural knowledge may not resonate with test-takers from other cultures, resulting in unfair scores. **Addressing Cultural Bias** - While it's challenging to create completely unbiased tests, efforts are made to develop culturally fair assessments. - Nonverbal intelligence tests (e.g., Raven's Progressive Matrices) aim to minimize language and cultural barriers. **Practical Applications of IQ Tests** - IQ tests are generally valid for predicting academic and job performance, particularly for individuals at the extremes of the intelligence spectrum. - However, they may not accurately predict success for those in the average range and can be influenced by factors like motivation and self-regulation. **Neuropsychology Context** - Intelligence tests play a critical role in neuropsychology, aiding in the assessment of cognitive and behavioral disorders related to brain injuries. - Understanding the implications of traumatic brain injuries (TBI), such as concussions, is crucial as they can significantly impact cognitive functions and intelligence test performance. In conclusion, while intelligence tests can provide useful insights, their design and implementation must consider factors like reliability, validity, cultural bias, and the context in which they are used. **Summary of Intellectual Disability, Giftedness, and Emotional Intelligence** **Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder)**\ Intellectual disability, previously known as mental retardation or developmental delay, is characterized by significantly below-average intellectual functioning (IQ below 70) and deficits in adaptive behavior, affecting daily living skills. These limitations must manifest during the developmental period and impact three domains: conceptual (academic skills), social (interpersonal skills), and practical (self-management). The prevalence is around 1% of the population, and severity can range from mild to profound, influencing individuals\' capabilities for independence and social interaction. **Diagnosis**\ Diagnosis relies on standardized IQ tests alongside clinical assessments, focusing more on adaptive functioning rather than solely on IQ scores. Adaptive functioning includes skills necessary for living independently, with varying degrees of support required based on severity. **Causes**\ Intellectual disability can arise from a variety of factors, including environmental influences (e.g., lead poisoning, prenatal exposure to toxins), biological conditions (e.g., Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome), and complications during birth or childhood illnesses. **Giftedness**\ On the opposite end of the intelligence spectrum, gifted individuals typically have IQs above 130. Contrary to stereotypes of gifted individuals being socially awkward, research shows they often exhibit strong social skills and emotional resilience. Longitudinal studies, such as Terman\'s research, demonstrate that gifted children tend to achieve high levels of academic and occupational success, with emotional and environmental factors playing significant roles in their development. **Emotional Intelligence**\ Emotional intelligence (EI) involves recognizing and managing one's own emotions and understanding others\' feelings. While traditional intelligence is important, EI is crucial for real-world success, including interpersonal relationships and professional performance. Studies suggest that individuals with high EI are more successful academically and socially, and it is linked to better health behaviors and physician-patient interactions in medical settings. Overall, intelligence encompasses a range of capabilities, and both cognitive and emotional factors contribute to an individual\'s success and well-being. **Summary of the Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence** **Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence**\ The debate over the influences of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) on intelligence has been longstanding. Intelligence is shaped by both genetic factors and life experiences, and studies, particularly involving twins and adoptees, help shed light on this complex interaction. **Twin and Adoption Studies**\ Research shows that identical twins, sharing 100% of their genes, have higher correlations in IQ scores compared to fraternal twins, who share about 50%. This indicates a significant genetic influence on intelligence, with estimates suggesting heritability is around 50%. However, because identical twins often share similar environments, it\'s challenging to isolate the impact of genetics alone. Over time, the influence of genetics appears to increase while environmental effects diminish, particularly as individuals reach adolescence. **Heritability and Environmental Impact**\ While heritability estimates for intelligence are approximately 50% in childhood, they can rise to as much as 80-91% in older age. However, heritability pertains to populations and cannot predict an individual's IQ based on genetics alone, as environmental factors play a crucial role. **The Flynn Effect**\ This term describes the observed rise in IQ scores over generations in modernized countries, suggesting that environmental factors, such as improved education and nutrition, contribute significantly to intelligence development. **Controversies and Misinterpretations**\ Discussions around race and intelligence, particularly highlighted in \"The Bell Curve\" by Herrnstein and Murray, have faced criticism for oversimplifying the relationship between genetics and intelligence. They incorrectly attributed IQ disparities among racial groups to genetics without adequately considering environmental influences like socioeconomic status and education. Many researchers argue that there is no credible evidence supporting genetic differences in intelligence between racial groups, emphasizing the importance of cultural and environmental factors. **Stereotype Threat**\ This phenomenon occurs when awareness of negative stereotypes affects performance, illustrating how social context can influence intelligence assessments. Overall, intelligence is influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors, and simplistic interpretations of these influences can lead to misconceptions and reinforce stereotypes. **Summary of Language and Cognition (Sections 7.11--7.14)** **Influence of Language on Memory:** Language can shape our memories and perceptions. For example, different verbs in questions can lead to varied recollections of an event (e.g., \"bump\" vs. \"smash\"). **Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence:** Identical twins show a high correlation in IQ (0.86), indicating a genetic influence, but environmental factors also play a crucial role. Current heritability estimates for IQ are around 0.50. **Cultural Considerations in Testing:** Test designers should aim to create culturally fair assessments rather than tests entirely free of cultural bias. **Developmental Perspectives on Language:** 1. **Language as a Communication Tool:** Language allows for the expression of thoughts and the sharing of information. It is structured through grammar, phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. 2. **Grammar Components:** - **Phonemes:** Basic sound units (e.g., the different sounds of \"a\"). - **Morphemes:** Smallest meaning units (e.g., \"play\" and \"-ing\"). - **Syntax:** Rules for sentence structure. - **Semantics:** Meaning of words and sentences. - **Pragmatics:** Practical language use in social contexts. **Stages of Language Development:** Children progress through stages: cooing, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic speech, and eventually to whole sentences, with the development influenced by interactions with caregivers. **Language and Thought Relationship:** Two key theories: - **Piaget:** Believed concepts precede language; children need to understand concepts before they can articulate them. - **Vygotsky:** Argued that language facilitates the development of concepts and helps control behavior. His view suggests that private speech aids cognitive development. **Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis:** This hypothesis posits that language shapes thought. While some examples (like the Inuit\'s multiple snow terms) have been debunked, studies indicate that language can influence higher-level thinking and categorization. Ongoing research explores how language affects perceptions of time, space, and reasoning, but results vary. In conclusion, language significantly impacts cognition, memory, and perception. The interplay between language and thought remains complex and is still an area of active research. **Summary of 7.14 Animal Studies in Language** This section explores two main questions regarding animals and language: whether animals can communicate and whether they can use language in the human sense. 1. **Animal Communication**: Animals definitely communicate using various methods, such as sounds (like a dog\'s growl) and physical behaviors (like the honeybee dance indicating pollen locations). However, these forms of communication are instinctual and not symbolic. 2. **Animal Use of Language**: The more complex question of whether animals can use language is debated. While attempts have been made to teach animals (like chimpanzees and dolphins) to use symbols or sign language, the success of these studies is contentious. A notable case is Kanzi, a bonobo, who learned to use abstract symbols on a keyboard by observing his mother. Estimates suggest he understood up to 2,000 English words and had a vocabulary of 480 symbols, though this remains anecdotal. 3. **Research Findings**: Other studies with dolphins and parrots have shown some success in teaching them to use symbols, but none of these animals have reached the language complexity of a 3-year-old human child. Critics argue that these animals may not fully grasp syntax---the ability to combine words into meaningful sentences. 4. **Syntax in Animals**: While there is little evidence that trained animals master complex syntax, some studies suggest certain birds, like the Japanese great tit, may use vocal compositional syntax, responding differently to call sequences based on their order. Overall, while animals exhibit communication skills and some symbolic understanding, the consensus is that they do not achieve the complexity and structure of human language.