Memory & Cognition PDF

Chapter 6 - Memory Process of memory Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses , organizes and stores it away, and retrieves that information from storage. Sensory Memory Sensory memory - the very first stage of memory when information enters the nervous...

Chapter 6 - Memory Process of memory Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses , organizes and stores it away, and retrieves that information from storage. Sensory Memory Sensory memory - the very first stage of memory when information enters the nervous system through our physical senses. - Iconic memory - visual sensory memory lasting only a fraction of a second. - Echoic memory - auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds Short term memory Short term memory (STM) - memory system where information is held for a brief time while being used. - Maintenance rehearsal - repeating information over and over again to maintain it longer in STM. - Chunking - combining individual bits of information into larger units or “chunks” so that more info can be stored in STM Long term memory Long term memory (LTM) - system of memory where information is stored on a relatively permanent basis. - Elaborative rehearsal - method of transferring data from STM to LTM by making that information meaningful in some way.  - Procedural LTM - skills & procedures that one knows how to physically perform (i.e “muscle memory”). - Declarative LTM - factual information and knowledge that can be explained or described. - Episodic memory- recent activities and past events (visual) -Semantic memory - general knowledge learned in our formal education. Memory & the brain Hippocampus - area of the brain responsible for the formation of new LTM’s (mostly declarative) & conversion of information from STM to LTM. procedural memory is stored in the cerebellum. Memories of fear are stored in the amygdala. Memory retrieval Retrieval cue - any stimulus in our environment that helps us retrieve or access a memory from storage. Recognition - matching a stimulus to previously stored information. - External cues are available to help. - Example - multiple choice test. Recall - information must be pulled from memory with very few (if any) external cues. - Reliant on memory alone - Examples - short answer, essay , and fill in the blank tests. Serial position effect Primacy effect - tendency to remember information at the beginning of a list/series better than the info that comes after it.  Recency effect - tendency to remember information at the end of a list or series better than the info that comes before it. Forgetting Encoding failure : failure to encode information into memory due to lack of attention/rehearsal. Retrieval failure : recall of stored information has failed (at least temporarily). Interference Theory Proactive interference: occurs when old information interferes with the recall of new information. Retroactive interference: occurs when new information interferes with the recall of old information. Amnesia Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury/trauma backwards, or the loss of older memories. ○ Disruption in the consolidation process - into prior to the injury/trauma was never encoded into LTM. ○ Similar to how unsaved work on a computer is lost. Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury trauma forward, or the loss of new memories. ○ Most associated with "senile dementia" in people with Alzheimer's Disease. ○ Difficulty forming new LT's after the injury or trauma. ○ Similar to how new info can't be saved on a computer. Chapter 7 - Cognition Thinking Thinking (cognition): mental activity that occurs when someone is attempting to organize, understand, & communicate information. Mental images: visual representations for objects, people, and events which have a picture-like quality (based on experience). Concepts Concepts: ideas that represent a class/calegan of objects, events, or people. ○ Superordinate - the most general form of a concept (e.g. "animal" or "fruit. ○ Basic level - an example of a superordinate concept (e.g. "dog" or "apple"). ○ Subordinate - the most specific example of a concept (e.g. "Pug" or "Red"). Problem-Solving Problem solving: process of cognition which occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking/behaving in certain ways. ○ Trial and Error: method where one possible approach after another is tried until a successful one is found. ○ Algorithms: step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems (e.g. math formulas, recipes, etc.). Heuristics: an educated guess or shortal, based on past experiences that help narrow down the possible solutions to a problem (a k.a. "rules of thumb"). ○ Relatively quick and efficient, but not always accurate. Insight: sudden perception of the solution to a problem (i.e. "a-hal" moment), based on an understanding of a problem's components and their relation to each other. ○ Cannot be achieved through trial and error alone. Problem-Solving Barriers Functional fixedness: thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses or functions often due 10 a lack of creativity. Mental set: a tendency to only use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. Intelligence Intelligence - the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively when faced with problems, challenges, or new situations. Spearman's Theory ○ "g" factor - the overall ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence. ○ "S" factor - the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence (e.g. art, music, math, science, language, etc.). Gardner's Theory - Multiple intelligences: model that describes 9 different types of "intelligence" based on one's abilities & personality traits. Criticized for lack of supporting research, and whether these categories actually measure intelligence. Stemberg's "Triarchic' Theon - Analytical intelligence: ability to break problems down into component parts for analysis (le."book smarts).  - Practical intelligence: ability to effectively function & adapt to situational environmental demands in the real world (i.e."street smarts"). Applying common sense and good judgment Understanding social context & etiquette Creative intelligence: ability to understand new ideas, adapt to new situations, & come up with novel ways to solve problems (i.e. "divergent thinking"). IQ Tests Stanford - Binet intelligence test Intelligence quotient (IQ) - measure of intelligence, resulting from dividing one's mental age by one's chronological age, then multiplying that number x 100 (MA/CA x 100 = IQ). Wechsler intelligence test - Most commonly used 1Q test in the U.S. - Different versions for different age groups. - Previously assigned a verbal, performance, and overall score of intelligence. - Current 5 Ed. organizes items into 4 scales: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Special populations Gifted : top 2-3% of the population with an IQ of 130 ( or higher). Intellectual disability : condition where a person's social, cognitive, & behavioral skills exist at a much lower level than normal for their age (aka “developmental delay), and their IQ is at/below 70. Chapter 8 - Development across the lifespan Nature vs. Nurture Nature - genetics =, heredity, biology , etc. Nurture - environment, socialization, etc. Developmental research designs Cross- sectional : several different age groups of participants are studied and compared at the same time. Longitudinal : one group of subjects is studied over many years to assess their development as they age. Prenatal development Germinal period - the first 2 weeks after conception, during which a zygote moves from the fallopian tube to the uterus where it begins to implant and develop. Embryonic period - the period from 2 to 8 weeks after conception during which the major organs and bodily structures first begin to develop. - Critical period of increased vulnerability to “teratogens”, which can adversely affect embryonic development. - Structural birth defects may occur during this period. Fetal period - the period from 8 weeks after conception until birth of the child, when most development, growth , and functionality of organs occur. Conception and twins Monozygotic twins : “identical” twins formed when one zygote (fertilized egg) splits into two separate masses of cells , each developing into a separate embryo/fetus (same DNA).  Dizygotic twins: “fraternal twins” that form when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm resulting in 2 separate zygotes, each developing into a separate embryo/fetus (different DNA). Chapter 9 - Motivation and Emotion Motivation and Emotion Extrinsic motivation- motivated by external rewards, doing something because your expecting something for it. EX- going to a job you hate for a paycheck. Intrinsic motivation- the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in an internal manner. Your not doing it for a reward, you're doing it because the act itself is the reward. EX- doing something fun or exciting or having a job you enjoy. Drive Reduction Theory Need- a physical requirement that's necessary for survival and sustaining well being. EX-food and water. Drive- a psychological tension and physical arousal that results from a need "driving" the organism to satisfy that need. Needs-drives-action-satisfaction Homeostasis- tendency of the body to maintain a state of balance/ equilibrium (like a thermostat) Obesity Obesity- condition where a person's body weight is 20% or more over the ideal weight (for their height) Psychological needs  - Need for achievement: the need or desire to succeed in accomplishing one's goals. (enjoys challenges and are results- oriented) - Need for affiliation: The need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others. (may also have a strong need for belonging. Approval, respect, admiration, and teamwork.) - Need for power: the need to have power, control, status, or influence over others. (may also seek out material wealth, fame, and prestige to feel superior or secure. Maslow's Hierarchy of needs Self- actualization: the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied all their needs and achieved their full human potential. Chapter 10 Sexuality and gender Sex - the physical aspects of being male or female. - Primary sex traits : sexual organs, gonads, etc. - Secondary sex traits : puberty - related changes. Gender- the psychological aspects of being male or female. - Gender identity - one's subjective sense of being male or female. Gender roles : expectations of masculine or feminine behavior including Sex and gender  Gender stereotype : a concept held about a person or group based entirely on them being male or female. Traditional gender stereotypes: