PSYC100: Psychology Thinking, Intelligence, Language Fall 2024 Koç University PDF

PSYC100: Psychology Thinking, Intelligence, Language Fall 2024 @ Koç University Gözde Şentürk Which of the following is not a component of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model of memory? a) Long-term memory b) Sensory memory c) Short-term memory d) Working memory Which of the following is not a...

PSYC100: Psychology Thinking, Intelligence, Language Fall 2024 @ Koç University Gözde Şentürk Which of the following is not a component of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model of memory? a) Long-term memory b) Sensory memory c) Short-term memory d) Working memory Which of the following is not a component of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model of memory? a) Long-term memory b) Sensory memory c) Short-term memory d) Working memory What is the auditory sensory memory? a) Central executive b) Classical conditioning c) Echoic memory d) Episodic memory e) Iconic memory f) Long-term memory g) Operant conditioning h) Phonological loop i) Procedural memory j) Semantic memory k) Short-term memory l) Visuospatial sketch pad m) Working memory What is the auditory sensory memory? a) Central executive b) Classical conditioning c) Echoic memory d) Episodic memory e) Iconic memory f) Long-term memory g) Operant conditioning h) Phonological loop i) Procedural memory j) Semantic memory k) Short-term memory l) Visuospatial sketch pad m) Working memory What reinforcement schedule is delivering the reinforcement as a consequence of the behavior, but the there is always a constant time delay between the behavior and the reinforcement? a) Continuous reinforcement b) Fixed interval c) Fixed ratio d) Variable interval e) Variable ratio What reinforcement schedule is delivering the reinforcement as a consequence of the behavior, but the there is always a constant time delay between the behavior and the reinforcement? a) Continuous reinforcement b) Fixed interval c) Fixed ratio d) Variable interval e) Variable ratio  “Thinking is usually considered to be the process of mentally Definitions representing some aspects of the world (including ourselves) and transforming these representations so that new representations, useful to our goals, are generated. “ (p. 424) “Problem solving encompasses the set of cognitive processes that we apply to reach a goal when we must overcome obstacles to reach that goal. “ (p. 424) “Reasoning encompasses the cognitive processes we use to make inferences from knowledge and draw conclusions. “ (p. 424) (Smith & Kosslyn, 2013) Some elements of thinking.. Mental images are mental representations of stimuli and events. Concepts are ideas which represents stimuli, objects, categories. A prototype is a concept which is the best representative of its category. (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) What is a problem? “A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.” (Goldstein, 2015, p. 418) Can be difficult, the solution may not be obvious. Solve the function f(x) = 9x + 5 when x = 2. How to manage a sitting arrangement in a wedding? A cat sleeps at my doorstep. How can I leave the house without waking him up? How to solve a problem step by step? 1 2 3 Identify the Represent the Take actions to problem problem reach your goal (Smith & Kosslyn, 2013) The structure of a problem Initial state (start state): The beginning of the problem as it is given. Goal state: The desired state to achieve by solving the problem. Operations: Actions you take to move from initial state to the goal state (Smith & Kosslyn, 2013) Tower of Hanoi ın terms of the newell-simon approach Many different moves.. Each move leads to an intermediate state. When started, in the initial state. As moved pegs, various intermediate states. Then, we reached to the goal state. All possible states are called the problem space. Here, best solutions have 7 steps. If do back and forth moves, can take more steps to solve. So many states, which moves to take? When solving, the whole problem space may not available to the person. Search the problem space to reach a solution. One way to search the problem space and find the solution is the means-end analysis. (Smith & Kosslyn, 2013, p. 428) (Goldstein, 2015) How do we solve problems? Trial and error (mechanical solutions) Algorithms Heuristics Insight (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) How do we solve problems? (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 222) Some heuristics (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 227) “Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 223) The gestalt approach: problem solving as representation and reconstruction In 1920s, Gestalt psychology introduced the study of problem solving. Gestalt psychology in perception, learning, problem solving A perceptual approach to problem solving. Representation of a problem in the mind Reorganizing/restructuring the representation (Goldstein, 2015)  The gestalt approach: problem solving as representation and reconstruction How are problems represented in the mind? Start with the presentation of the problem. Different people may represent the same problem in different ways. Eg. Crossword puzzles Focus on a small portion of a puzzle? Try to solve the horizontal lines first, then vertical lines? How a problem is represented in the mind can influence the success of the problem solving. Restructuring the problem “The process of changing a problem’s representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.” (Goldstein, 2015, p. 419) (Goldstein, 2015) Let’s restructure the following problem x=? r r The gestalt approach: problem solving as representation and reconstruction Restructuring and insight association Insight is suddenly realizing how to solve a problem. ? Insight problem, solution comes like an “A ha!” moment. The Gestalt psychology problem were usually insight problems where the crucial elements were discovered suddenly Importance of reconstruction usually in insight problems Device problems so that restructuring is needed (Goldstein, 2015) Solve this problem: Move only 3 dots to invert the triangle  The gestalt approach: problem solving as representation and reconstruction Subjective feeling of progress toward the solution (Metcalfe & Wiebe, 1987 as cited in Goldstein, 2015). Demonstration of the insight problems. Chain problem: “A woman has four pieces of chain. Each piece is made up of three links, as shown in Figure 12.3b. She wants to join the pieces into a single closed loop of chain. To open a link costs 2 cents and to close a link costs 3 cents. She only has 15 cents. How does she do it?” (Goldstein, 2015, p. 338) (image from Goldstein, 2015, p. 338) Why can’t we solve some problems? Confirmation bias: Focusing on evidence that confirms your thoughts and ignoring the contradicting ones Mental Sets: Trying to use an old solution that will not work on the current issue Functional fixedness: Focusing on the main function of a tool, hence not using it creatively to solve the problem (Ciccarelli & White, 2021)  The gestalt approach: problem solving as representation and reconstruction A type of fixation is fixating on a familiar function of a tool/object (functional fixedness). Example? Maier’s two-string problem How to solve? Use the pliers as a pendulum 23/60 of the participants solved the problem within 10 minutes. Why? Fixated on the plier’s usual function A hint: Moved the strings. 23/27 subjects solved in in 1 minute. Solution came as an insight as they reconstructed the problem Why are the two-string and the candle problems challenging? Because of mental sets “A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.” (Goldstein, 2015, p. 414) (image from Goldstein, 2015, p. 339) (Goldstein, 2015) Creativity Creativity is solving problems in new ways. Convergent thinking is conceptualizing the problem as having only one correct answer and there are many ways to reach to the same solution Divergent thinking is conceptualizing problems by branching out (more than one solution, more than one way..) (Ciccarelli & White, 2021)  Creative problem solving: GENERATING IDEAS Too much knowledge may hinder creative thinking. Decreased flexible thinking. The previous exposure can decrease creativity (Smith et al., 1993 as cited in Goldstein, 2015). Creativity can be inhibited by preconceptions. Group brainstorming: “When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship” (Goldstein, 2015, p. 411) Group brainstorming & creative thinking (Osborn, 1953 as cited in Goldstein, 2015): number of ideas in group thinking