Psychology Chapter 42-43 PDF

**Social Norms** 42.1.01 Folkways, Mores, and Taboos Concept 34.4.01 describes socialization as the lifelong process of learning the expected behaviors (ie, norms) and beliefs of one\'s own society. In sociology, **norms** are unwritten rules for behavior that people in society are expected to fol...

**Social Norms** 42.1.01 Folkways, Mores, and Taboos Concept 34.4.01 describes socialization as the lifelong process of learning the expected behaviors (ie, norms) and beliefs of one\'s own society. In sociology, **norms** are unwritten rules for behavior that people in society are expected to follow (eg, chewing with a closed mouth). When individuals follow social norms, societal order is established by ensuring that behavior is predictable (shown in Figure 42.1). Norms also help individuals decode and understand the behavior of others (eg, the norm of silence in a library helps explain why a friend does not start a conversation there). **Figure 42.1** Impact of norms on guiding behavior and establishing order in society. Cultural values (see Lesson 34.1) guide the development of norms because expectations for behavior reflect what is important and moral in society. Norms exist in every culture but can vary based on differences in cultural values and beliefs. For example, in the United States, there is a norm to work for eight hours a day with brief breaks. However, in some Latin and Mediterranean cultures, there is a norm to take a long afternoon break during the workday for rest and leisure. Four different types of norms reflect differences in how important the expected behavior is within a culture: **Folkways** are informal normative behaviors and/or traditions in society (eg, face forward on an elevator). **Mores** are more serious norms with greater moral significance and a stronger connection to cultural values (eg, original work on homework assignments). **Laws** are formal norms strictly enforcing what society views as right and wrong (eg, must be 21 years old to drink alcohol in the United States). **Taboos** are society\'s strongest norms (eg, do not eat another human), and violations are considered morally reprehensible. A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated Chapter 42: Normative and Non-normative Behavior 232 42.1.02 Sanctions Associated with norms, **sanctions** promote compliance (Concept 41.3.02) with normative behaviors and are a means of social control (Concept 41.1.02) in society. A **positive sanction** is a reward for upholding a norm, whereas a **negative sanction** is a repercussion for violating a norm. (Note: sociology uses the terms \"positive\" and \"negative\" differently than how psychology uses these terms; for example, see Concept 17.2.01.) For example, parents may establish a norm of quiet behavior for their child in public settings. Giving the child a piece of candy for quiet behavior in the grocery store would be a positive sanction (ie, a reward for complying with the norm), whereas scolding the child for yelling in a grocery store would be a negative sanction (ie, repercussion for violating the norm). In addition, sanctions can be enforced through informal and formal mechanisms. **Formal sanctions** are codified within the institutions of society, such as policies or laws (eg, repeated absences from work result in termination). **Informal sanctions** are not codified and are enforced by members of social groups (eg, marital infidelity results in social shunning from the community). All four possible variations of sanctions (ie, positive formal, positive informal, negative formal, negative informal) serve to promote socially expected behaviors (shown in Table 42.1). **Table 42.1** Examples of the four types of sanctions.  Chapter 42: Normative and Non-normative Behavior 233 42.1.03 Anomie At times, there are situations where norms may no longer have significance or the ability to regulate individual behavior in a society. Sociologist Émile Durkheim developed the concept **anomie** to describe this state of normlessness. When the norms and values of a society are challenged but have yet to be replaced, the social system reaches the state of anomie. Without norms, individuals lack guidance and purpose and may develop feelings of aimlessness or disconnection from society. Anomie is often the result of a shift or transition in society that causes instability. For example, during the Industrial Revolution, many individuals left their lives in agricultural communities and moved to cities to start a new way of life working in factories. This societal shift resulted in a period of anomie because the norms governing life prior to the Industrial Revolution (eg, contribute to community work, live with extended family) were no longer effective or relevant **Deviance** 42.2.01 Deviance While norms are necessary to provide order within society, there are instances when social rules are not followed. An act or belief which violates a group\'s norms is referred to as **deviance**. Outside of sociology, the term deviance is typically associated with crime or negative behaviors. However, within sociology, deviance is defined more broadly to include uncommon (eg, eating a vegan diet) or off-putting (eg, nose-picking in public) acts, as well as egregious (eg, marital infidelity) or criminal (eg, murder) activities. Norms, and therefore what is considered deviant, are social constructs (Concept 32.2.04). Definitions of deviant behavior are specific to the social context and vary across time periods. Behaviors that are considered deviant or even criminal in one setting (eg, killing a family member is constructed as murder) may be perfectly acceptable in another (eg, killing enemies during a war is constructed as heroic). 42.2.02 Perspectives on Deviance In sociology, there are a variety of perspectives used to explain why deviance occurs. Each theory on deviance describes why deviant acts and beliefs are a part of social life despite the importance of normative behavior to maintain order and stability in society. **Differential association theory** suggests deviance is learned through interaction with others engaging in deviance. In this theory, socialization into groups is important to understand whether an individual engages in normative or deviant behaviors. At times, a group may engage in behaviors that are considered deviant within mainstream society but within the group the behavior is common. For example, if gang members carry illegal firearms, new recruits quickly learn that this is \"normal\" and that they are expected to engage in this deviant behavior to be a part of the group. Another perspective on deviance, **labeling theory**, proposes that deviance lies not in the behavior but in the social response of applying the \"deviant\" label to individuals. When someone is labeled as deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance. The initial act is called **primary deviance** and is usually mild but leads to the \"deviant\" label and resulting social stigma (ie, disapproval by others). Internalization of the deviant label leads to further and often more serious violations called **secondary deviance**. For example, if an individual is convicted of a crime and labeled a criminal, they may experience stigmatization when seeking employment and housing, and police may be more likely to monitor the individual\'s activities. These obstacles facilitate the individual\'s internalization of the label \"criminal,\" making it more likely that person will commit another crime and be caught again. Therefore, the response to behaviors (ie, labeling and social stigma), not the initial behaviors themselves, results in further acts of deviance. Finally, **strain theory** argues that deviant behavior results from tension (ie, strain) caused by a disconnect between socially acceptable **goals**, such as a career and middle-class lifestyle, and the **means** to obtain those goals, such as access to higher education. For example, a parent is unable to feed her child (goal) because she does not have enough money (lack of means) and therefore experiences strain. This strain may then cause her to seek deviant means (eg, stealing food) to achieve the goal. Chapter 42: Normative and Non-normative Behavior 235 The three key perspectives on deviant behavior are summarized in Table 42.2. **Table 42.2** Perspectives on deviant behavior. **Differential association** Individuals learn specific deviant behaviors and values/norms through interaction with others with those same behaviors and values/norms. **Labeling** Primary deviance (a small social norm violation) leads to a deviant label and social stigma, causing secondary deviance (more serious violations). **Strain** Deviant behavior results from the disconnect between goals and the means for achieving those goals **Education** 43.1.01 Hidden Curriculum **Social institutions** (eg, family, religion) are enduring, organized systems that outline behavioral norms and fulfill a specific purpose in society. The persistence of social institutions over time helps to create stability and predictability in social life. The **education system** is a social institution that meets society\'s need to transfer knowledge and skills to its members. Classroom interactions and experiences are a part of socialization (see Lesson 34.4). The education system is designed to teach a formal curriculum (ie, explicit, official content) such as reading and math. Additionally, the education system has a latent function (ie, unintended purpose which is described in Concept 32.2.01) to transfer dominant cultural values. The **hidden curriculum** includes the implied, informal mechanisms by which certain beliefs and behaviors are promoted within academic settings. For example, reciting the national anthem at the start of each school day is a part of the hidden curriculum instilling the value of patriotism. 43.1.02 Teacher Expectancy Student performance is impacted by **teacher expectancy** when a teacher\'s beliefs about a student (eg, a particular student is \"smart\" or \"lazy\") result in the student meeting those expectations (eg, excelling or performing poorly, respectively). Like self-fulfilling prophecy (see Concept 40.2.02), teacher expectancy is thought to occur because teachers\' beliefs unconsciously influence their actions, causing them to treat students differently (eg, giving less feedback to a student believed to be \"lazy\"). Students may then overperform when the teacher has high expectations or underperform when the teacher has low expectations. This process is depicted in Figure 43.1. **Figure 43.1** Impact of teacher expectancy on student outcomes. A diagram of a teacher\'s behavior Description automatically generated Chapter 43: Social Institutions 240 43.1.03 Educational Segregation and Stratification **Educational stratification** refers to the mechanisms that produce inequality in educational access (eg, the schools that are available to students) and outcomes (eg, graduation rates, college matriculation) in society. Students are stratified in the education system because of social inequalities related to race, class, and gender. For instance (see Figure 43.2), students with high social standing have many options (eg, well-funded local public schools, private schools), whereas students with low social standing have fewer options (eg, limited access to quality schools and teachers). **Figure 43.2** Educational stratification and the impact on social inequality.  **Family** 43.2.01 Kinship The family is a social institution designed to meet basic human needs, including food, shelter, and support. **Family** is broadly defined as at least two individuals connected by an intimate relationship (eg, marriage/partnership, birth, adoption) who often live together. The definition of family varies based on culture (eg, who counts as a family member) and can include different types of bonds between individuals, including intimate/emotional bonds (eg, romantic partnership), legal bonds (eg, adoption, marriage), and/or genetic bonds (ie, biological family). In sociology, **kinship** describes how individuals in society are related to one another. There are three major types of kinship (see Table 43.1): **consanguineal** (genetically related individuals), **affinal** (individuals related through marriage), and **fictive** (individuals related through something other than genetics or marriage). Also known as chosen or voluntary kin, fictive kin may share various types of bonds, including those through law (eg, adopted children), religion (eg, godparents), and close friendships (eg, fraternity brothers). **Table 43.1** Types of kinship bonds. **Kinship bond** **Definition** **Consanguineal** Based on a genetic relationship (eg, biological parents) **Affinal** Based on marriage (eg, spouses) **Fictive** Based on social ties that are not consanguineal or affinal (eg, godparents) 43.2.02 Diversity in Family Forms **Family forms** describe which individuals are included in the definition and structure of a family group. In Western societies during the post-World War II period, the \"typical\" family form consisted of a breadwinner (ie, economic earner) male parent and a homemaker (ie, caretaker of children and home) female parent with biological children. In society today, there is greater diversity in family forms with many alternative combinations of family members. Some examples of diverse family forms include heterosexual or same-sex couples with or without children, single parents, couples with adopted children, couples in second marriages with step-children, and grandparents with grandchildren. 43.2.03 Abuse in the Family While the function of the family is to provide support and stability for its members, unfortunately, abuse can occur. Abuse within families can take multiple forms, including physical or sexual violence, emotional harm, neglect, and/or isolation. Cases of abuse in families are categorized based on family relationships and the age of the victims. **Child abuse** refers to the mistreatment and neglect of children; abuse experienced in early life can have lifelong consequences for the victims. **Spousal abuse** (also known as domestic violence or intimate partner violence) includes harassing and/or harmful behaviors toward one\'s partner. **Elder abuse** is a more recently defined category of abuse within families and can include financial abuse (ie, mishandling or stealing an elder\'s money **Religion** 43.3.01 Religiosity **Religion** is a social institution that addresses the spiritual needs of a society and can provide a framework for learning norms and values. In sociology, religious groups such as Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity are defined as cultural systems (see Lesson 34.1). Each religion\'s specific beliefs and rituals support the group\'s understanding of morality (ie, right/wrong) and the meaning of life/death. Furthermore, an individual\'s involvement in religious groups impacts their identity. **Religiosity** (also known as religiousness) refers to the extent to which a given religious doctrine (ie, set of beliefs and principles) is incorporated into all aspects of an *individual\'s life*. In other words, religiosity is the degree to which a person internalizes a religion. For example, those who consider themselves Jewish and have a high degree of religiosity demonstrate beliefs and behaviors that align with Judaism, and \"being Jewish\" is an important part of their identity. 43.3.02 Types of Religious Organizations The many different religious organizations that exist worldwide can be divided into three main categories: churches, sects, and cults (see Table 43.2). **Churches** are large, formal organizations with traditional practices and often include bureaucratic leadership (eg, the hierarchy of priest, bishop, and pope in Catholicism) (see Concept 36.6.01 for formal organizations and Concept 36.6.02 for bureaucracies). In sociology, a \"church\" is not limited to Christian faith communities; any religious organization that is mainstream and well-established in society is categorized as a church, including Jewish, Buddhist, and Islamic religions. Some religious organizations are not mainstream or integrated into society. **Sects** are religious subgroups formed after believers split from an established church in pursuit of a more traditional form of faith. Some sects utilize more equal and open rather than hierarchical leadership. Members of sects aim to revive the \"true beliefs\" of a religion that have been diminished or corrupted. For example, Hasidic Judaism is a sect that promotes a return to traditional Jewish beliefs and practices including religious rituals and style of dress. New religious organizations are categorized as **cults**. These new groups present claims about spirituality that are not present in mainstream religions, and many cults are loosely organized around a charismatic (ie, inspirational and empowering) leader. The term \"cult\" can be negative; however, sociologists use this term to describe *any* new religious group, without evaluating or judging the group. **Table 43.2** Types of religious organizations. **Organizational structure** **Relation to society** **Church** Large, formal organization with bureaucratic leadership Mainstream and established religious group **Sect** Smaller, informal organization often with equal and open leadership Subgroup of an established religious group **Cult** Loose organization around a charismatic leader New group offering a new religious belief system Chapter 43: Social Institutions 243 The types of religious organizations operate on a spectrum, meaning groups that are currently classified as sects or cults may eventually be categorized as churches. For example, today, Protestant groups such as Lutherans and Methodists are considered churches but were originally small sects protesting the corrupt practices within the Catholic church during the 1500s in Europe. 43.3.03 Religion and Social Change As elements of society change, there is an impact on the practice and purpose of religious organizations (see Table 43.3). **Modernization** refers to the social progress and transition of a society originally brought about by industrialization (ie, development of systems of production focused on efficiency). Over time, this process results in a society becoming less traditional with new cultural values. Within religion, modernization marks a shift away from traditional practices to better reflect the modern world. For example, the incorporation of female clergy into historically male-dominated religious groups demonstrates the impact of modernization on religion. The focus on efficiency brought about by modernization relies on rational, scientific ideas. The **secularization** of society refers to a shift from traditional ways of life to a society organized by science and empiricism (ie, observable phenomena). Within religion, this process diminishes the social and political power of religious organizations. For example, the shift from traditional religious healing practices to the use of scientific medical interventions to treat illness illustrates secularization. Secularization occurs at the micro-level with less individual involvement in religious activities and at the macro-level with a decreased influence of religious institutions on other aspects of social life (eg, education). In reaction to modernization and secularization, **fundamentalism** is the renewed adherence to strict, traditional beliefs and practices. Within religion, fundamentalist groups often believe in a literal interpretation of religious doctrine (eg, sharia, or traditional Islamic law) and texts (eg, the Torah, the Bible). The strict interpretation of religious beliefs and practices sometimes leads to intolerance of others (eg, violence towards non-believers). **Table 43.3** Impact of social change on religion. **Process of social change** **Impact on religion** **Modernization** Changes traditional religious practices to fit into the modern world **Secularization** Reduces the power of religion as religious involvement declines **Fundamentalism** Renews commitment to traditional religion as a reaction to secularization **Government and Economy** 43.4.01 Power and Authority The government and economy are institutions that function at a variety of levels within society (eg, local, state, national). **Governments** are legal institutions that provide order and stability through social services (eg, postal, transportation, public health) and the implementation of laws. The **economy** regulates the production, distribution, and consumption of commodities and services throughout society. While there are different systems of government (eg, monarchy, democracy) and economy (eg, capitalist, socialist) across the world, one common feature is the reliance on power for the systems to function effectively. **Power** is the ability of individuals or groups to act based on their own interests to achieve goals with little resistance. Institutions like the government and economy must have the power to influence the societal order and maintain stable operations. Additionally, many types of social relationships involve differences in power, such as manager/employee, physician/patient, and parent/child. In some instances, power is exerted by force and coercion (eg, in a violent government takeover). In contrast, the legitimate and justified application of power is referred to as **authority**. Individuals subject to authority believe in the validity of this form of power. For example, citizens recognize the court as having legitimate power to limit individual freedoms such as the loss of a driver\'s license as punishment for driving while intoxicated. Sociologist Max Weber described three types of authority: **Traditional authority** comes from longstanding patterns in society. For example, a royal family bloodline is seen as having legitimate power due to the traditions of a monarchy. **Charismatic authority** stems from an individual\'s personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims. For example, Gandhi was seen as having legitimate power due to his ability to inspire people. **Rational-legal authority** arises from a person\'s professional position. For example, a physician is seen as having legitimate power due to their extensive training. 43.4.02 Division of Labor Government and economic institutions rely on the **division of labor** which refers to the specialization of tasks in society. Current economic systems often approach large tasks (eg, manufacturing a product) by separating work based on skill and specialized training. Through the division of labor, societies become more interdependent, and citizens rely on one another to accomplish the tasks needed for survival. For example, in a low division of labor society, individuals engage in subsistence farming and produce all the food their family will eat. In a high division of labor society, food production is divided among multiple individuals. A farmer grows and harvests the food, another person transports the food to a store, and then store workers sell the food to consumers. Each step has a specialized task, and multiple individuals need to complete their tasks for food to be available for everyone to eat. Division of labor has advantages and disadvantages. When labor is specialized and divided among multiple individuals, there is an increase in efficiency and productivity along with a reduction of costs (eg, assembly line production). However, specialization can also result in the exploitation of labor when workers\' rights are diminished in pursuit of productivity and profit (eg, workers\' breaks are eliminated to increase productivity). Similarly, specialization can contribute to inequality in society when certain tasks and occupations are seen as more valuable; however, this valuation does not always reflect how necessary a task is to society\'s functioning. For example, a garbage collector is a necessary occupation in society, but this specialization has low value. However, a professional athlete is a less necessary occupation in society, but this specialization has high value **Medicine** 43.5.01 Medicalization **Medicine** is the social institution responsible for the promotion and maintenance of health within society. Definitions of health and approaches to healing differ between cultural groups. For example, Traditional Chinese Medicine views health as a balance of Qi (ie, vital life force), and healing practices such as acupuncture and herbs aim to restore balance in the body. However, in Western societies biomedicine (ie, science-based medicine) views health as the absence of disease, and physicians utilize medical technologies (eg, MRI, CT scan) and pharmaceuticals to diagnose and treat symptoms, respectively. Contributing to the social significance of biomedicine is **medicalization**, which is the process of defining human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions. Once a condition is defined as a medical issue, medical professionals are consulted in diagnosing, preventing, or treating the condition. For example, menopause, a biological experience associated with natural aging, is now viewed by some as a deficiency in hormones that can be treated with pharmaceuticals. Positive outcomes of medicalization include treatment, awareness, and funding for certain conditions. For example, Vietnam War veterans who were experiencing disturbing memories and flashbacks of their trauma advocated for the medicalization of their condition through the development of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis, which helped the veterans gain access to necessary treatment. On the other hand, negative consequences of medicalization include side effects of medication (eg, hormone treatment for menopause increases risk of stroke and breast cancer) and stigmatization (ie, negative labeling of individuals as described in Concept 40.4.03). 43.5.02 The Sick Role In sociology, **sick role theory** is a functionalist perspective (Concept 32.2.01) that describes how the disruptions to typical social activity (eg, work, school) are minimized through the \"sick role.\" When ill, an individual follows the social expectations of the \"sick role,\" including designated rights and obligations: **Rights**: The sick person has the right to be exempt from performing other social roles (eg, employee) while sick and is excused from fulfilling normal responsibilities (eg, going to work). The sick person also has the right to not be blamed for the illness. **Obligations**: The sick person has the responsibility to make every reasonable effort to get well as soon as possible. The sick person also has the responsibility to seek medical help and to cooperate with medical professionals (eg, follow their treatment plan). The rights and obligations of the sick role help maintain order within society and guide sick individuals to restore their health and return to their typical responsibilities. While being sick may be considered a non-normative behavior (Concept 42.2.01), the application of the sick role legitimizes illness as a socially acceptable form of deviance. 43.5.03 The Illness Experience The **illness experience** is a symbolic interactionist approach (Concept 32.2.03) that examines how illness impacts identity and daily life. In sociology, \"illness\" is a subjective interpretation of sickness and health, whereas \"disease\" is objectively defined by medical professionals. For example, an individual who has celiac disease (ie, gluten intolerance) may subjectively interpret themselves as healthy and not experiencing *illness* if they manage their symptoms through diet change. Chapter 43: Social Institutions 246 The illness experience also addresses the fact that individuals with chronic illness must make sense of and manage their illness in everyday life. For example, these individuals typically gather information about their illness and seek necessary treatments. Chronic illness can impact interaction, such as explaining the illness to coworkers, friends, and family. Additionally, daily activities that do not directly involve managing or explaining one\'s illness are typically nevertheless impacted, such as maintaining a household, working, and caring for loved ones. 43.5.04 Social Epidemiology To understand the impact of health and illness on society, public health professionals and other scientists research patterns of disease and illness experiences. Epidemiology is the study of disease incidence (ie, new cases of a disease) and prevalence (ie, proportion of the population with a disease); **social epidemiology** is a subfield of epidemiology that focuses on the social factors that impact the health of a population. Social factors impact health outcomes on many levels, including structural factors (eg, a society at war), cultural factors (eg, school policies on vaccination), and individual factors (eg, childhood exposure to toxins