Psychology Chapter 36-37 PDF

**The Presentation of Self** 36.1.01 Dramaturgical Approach Sociologist Erving Goffman developed a theory of social interaction that focused on the presentation of the self. Goffman describes social interaction as an exchange of role performances that communicate information about the self to othe...

**The Presentation of Self** 36.1.01 Dramaturgical Approach Sociologist Erving Goffman developed a theory of social interaction that focused on the presentation of the self. Goffman describes social interaction as an exchange of role performances that communicate information about the self to others. The **dramaturgical approach** is a sociological theory that examines social interaction using a theater metaphor. In this theory, social life is like a play in which individuals are \"actors\" following a script to perform a role in front of others, the \"audience.\" The social situation and physical location set the \"stage\" for interaction that guides what social roles are performed and which behaviors are expected. The audience evaluates the success of the social performance much like a theatrical audience can applaud or boo at a play. The concepts of front-stage and back-stage describe differences in the presentation of the self. The **front-stage** is social interaction involving role performance and audience evaluation. Most social interaction occurs in front-stage settings in which social actors present an idealized self-performance to others. The **back-stage** is social interaction involving informal or relaxed performances without the evaluation from an audience. In the back-stage, interaction with close friends, colleagues, or family does not include the presentation of an idealized self and can also be a space to rehearse and prepare for a front-stage performance. A typical restaurant exemplifies front-stage and back-stage interaction (depicted in Figure 36.1). The main dining room is the front-stage, where the server (social actor) is performing a role that includes cultural norms of polite language and respectful service to the patrons (audience). The back-stage is the kitchen, where the server is not expected to perform norms of politeness and can be more informal, even expressing frustration or stress while no longer presenting the ideal server role to the audience of patrons. **Figure 36.1** Examples of front-stage and back-stage interaction in a restaurant. A collage of a person in a restaurant Description automatically generated Chapter 36: Interacting with Others 201 36.1.02 Impression Management **Impression management** involves all the conscious and unconscious ways that individuals try to present themselves to others, including appearance, speech, and behavior. Individuals carefully manage the presentation of self to project a positive self-image in interaction. For example, when individuals go on first dates, they are intentional about what they wear, how they speak, and what aspects of themself they share with their romantic interests. The social situation directs which impression one wants to give to others in interaction. Different roles and scripts are required in different social environments, and a particular self-performance (eg, cheering rock music fan) may be positive in one setting (eg, at a rock concert) but not in another (eg, at a business meeting). The importance of social context directly connects to the concept of dramaturgy (see Figure 36.2). Understanding the \"stage\" helps a social actor know how to perform in a desirable way and to manage the evaluation of the presentation of self. **Figure 36.2** Examples of impression management based on social setting.  **Status** 36.2.01 Status and Status Set **Status** refers to the social position an individual holds in society. Statuses are a part of social systems (eg, family, workplace, healthcare) and exist in relation to one another (eg, parent/child, employee/manager, physician/patient). In addition, many statuses are organized in a hierarchical structure in which some statuses (eg, manager) have more power than others (eg, employee). Every individual has multiple statuses, which are, together, referred to as a **status set**. The social setting, rather than the individual, determines which status is present and necessary for interaction. For example, an individual\'s status set could include roommate, student, and sibling, and the social setting determines whether the individual is in the status of roommate, student, or sibling. Each status is associated with specific expectations for how one is to behave and interact with others. These expectations are further discussed in Lesson 36.3. 36.2.02 Types of Status Statuses can be classified as ascribed, achieved, or master (see Figure 36.3). An **ascribed status** is an involuntary social position assigned by society that is typically based on social identity categories such as sex, race, or nationality. Ascribed statuses are often lifelong social positions. Alternately, an **achieved status** is a *voluntary* social position earned through merit or choice and reflects accomplishment, skill, and/or ability. Examples of achieved statuses include merit-based positions such as college graduate and physician, as well as chosen social positions such as friend and volunteer. A **master status** overshadows the other statuses in an individual\'s status set. Other people tend to view an individual as their master status in all interactions, even in situations that would otherwise be guided by another status. A master status can be either ascribed or achieved, and an individual may have more than one master status. For example, an individual\'s occupational status of physician may be a master status when other people, such as a neighbor, view her as a physician outside of the workplace. However, if others do not know that she is a physician, her sex (ie, female) may become the master status in an interaction. **Figure 36.3** Examples of types of status. A person in a blue scrubs with her arms crossed Description automatically generated **Roles** 36.3.01 Roles Status refers to the social position an individual holds in society (see Lesson 36.2). Every status has an associated **role** (also known as social role) that describes the expected behaviors of individuals in the status. For example, \"student\" is a status, and the associated role would include expected behaviors such as attending class, completing assignments, and studying for exams. A **role performance** occurs when an individual acts out the expected behaviors of a role in social interaction. At times, individuals may not complete all expected behaviors (eg, a professor does not finish grading exams on time), resulting in a less successful role performance. Because individuals have multiple roles, attempting to perform the numerous behaviors expected of them can produce situations of role strain and role conflict (as detailed in Concept 36.3.02). Roles are a part of social structure, meaning that they are tied to the social situation rather than to the individual performing the role. In addition, the expected behaviors of a role remain consistent in all social situations no matter who is performing the role. For instance, in the U.S. government, the \"President\" is a role with various expectations for behavior (eg, sign/veto bills, address national issues). The set of expected behaviors (see Figure 36.4) remains consistent and applies to every individual performing the role of President, regardless of the individual characteristics of those who hold the office. **Figure 36.4** Examples of role expectations for the President of the United States.  Chapter 36: Interacting with Others 204 36.3.02 Role Strain, Role Conflict, and Role Exit **Role strain** occurs when the expectations for a *single role* compete, producing tension. Role strain describes a situation in which an individual is overloaded with expectations for a single role, so performing all expected behaviors is difficult. For example, role strain could occur for a mother (ie, role) who struggles to balance the expected behaviors of driving her children to after-school activities and cooking nutritious meals. On the other hand, **role conflict** occurs when the expectations for *two or more roles* simultaneously held by an individual compete, producing tension. Role conflict creates a situation in which an individual is faced with opposing expectations from each role and must choose which role to perform. For example, role conflict could occur for a physician who is also a husband and father. The expectation for his role as physician to work on weekends may conflict with expectations for his role as parent, such as attending his child\'s soccer game, and his role as husband, such as spending time with his spouse. Role strain and role conflict describe two different types of role challenges individuals experience due to tension created by competing expectations for behavior (see Table 36.1). One response to this tension is **role exit**, which occurs when an individual moves from one role to another, disengaging from the original role\'s expected behaviors and taking on the expected behaviors of a new role. For example, a physician who retires from a long career at a busy hospital to travel is experiencing role exit by disengaging from her occupational role and starting a new role as a retiree. **Table 36.1** Types of role challenges. **Role strain** Competing expectations within a single role create tension oExample: a student struggles to find enough time to complete all readings before class (expectation 1) and write lab reports (expectation 2) **Role conflict** Competing expectations for two or more roles create tension oExample: a student (role 1) employed part-time (role 2) struggles to find enough time to complete homework and work late hours, respectively **Role exit** Individual disengages from a role, often replacing it with a new role with new expectations for behavior oExample: a college student (old role) graduates and begins full-time employment (new role **Groups** 36.4.01 Primary and Secondary Groups A **social group** (also called a group) is a set of individuals (ie, two or more people) who engage in interactions based on shared experiences or goals. Groups are an important element of society because most social interaction occurs within group settings. **Primary groups** are composed of a small number of individuals who share close, personal relationships that typically involve face-to-face interactions. In primary groups, members are united by emotional bonds and typically have long-lasting, committed relationships. Examples of primary groups include families, close friends, and couples in romantic relationships. On the other hand, **secondary groups** are composed of individuals who share impersonal relationships that involve interactions aimed at accomplishing a task (see Figure 36.5). In secondary groups, members are united by shared goals and typically disband after the group\'s goals are achieved. Examples of secondary groups include exam study groups and professional associations. **Figure 36.5** Examples of primary and secondary groups. 36.4.02 In-Group versus Out-Group Groups can also be categorized based on membership. An **in-group** is a group to which individuals feel a sense of belonging, whereas an **out-group** is a group to which individuals do not feel they belong. In-groups and out-groups can be defined by social identity categories (eg, race, class) or other criteria such as shared interests (eg, sports team fans) or geographic region (eg, hometown). Individuals tend to view their own in-group favorably and engage in comfortable interactions with these members. Alternatively, out-groups tend to be viewed unfavorably, and, at times, interaction with out-groups is based on antagonistic feelings (eg, opposing political parties). A diagram of a person Description automatically generated Chapter 36: Interacting with Others 206 Individuals often compare themselves to others. A **reference group** refers to comparison groups used to evaluate one\'s own behavior and self-concept. For example, an individual who compares their medical school entrance exam study habits to those of other pre-med students is using the other students as a reference group. Individuals may be members of the reference group (eg, family, friends), or an individual may aspire to emulate members of the reference group (eg, celebrities, leaders). Individuals typically have multiple reference groups at a given time, and these also change throughout life. 36.4.03 Group Size Another difference between groups is size (ie, number of individual members), which impacts the strength and closeness of the group. The relationships between individual group members are called social ties. As **group size** increases, the potential number of social ties increases as well. Larger groups (eg, whole societies) are stronger due to the higher number of social ties; however, in smaller groups (eg, roommates) members are more reliant on one another and have closer relationships. The smallest group is a **dyad**, which is composed of two individuals with only one social tie. Dyads are the simplest and most intimate group because the two members depend solely on each other. However, dyads are less stable than larger groups because if either individual leaves, the group ceases to exist. For example, a husband and wife are a dyad with one, intimate social tie to each other, and if either individual chooses to leave the group (ie, divorce), the dyad dissolves. A **triad**, which is a group of three individuals, is less intimate than a dyad because there are three social ties, and the members can depend on two other individuals. As such, triads are more stable than dyads because the greater number of social ties allows one individual to leave the group, but the group would still exist (as a dyad). For example, if a husband and wife have a child, the group becomes a triad with three social ties and is more stable because one individual can leave, but the group would continue to exist. Figure 36.6 shows the key differences in groups based on size. **Figure 36.6** Comparing features of dyad versus triad groups.  **Networks** 36.5.01 Networks and Social Network Analysis A **social network** is an informal and nonhierarchical web of connections between individuals, groups, and/or organizations. Networks consist of an assortment of direct (eg, spouse, neighbor) and indirect (eg, friend of a friend) relationships linking individuals to one another. **Strong ties** refer to solid connections between an individual and family or close friends, whereas **weak ties** are loose connections between acquaintances or coworkers. Figure 36.7 is an example of a social network with multiple nodes and ties. **Figure 36.7** Social network example. Researchers use these visualizations in **social network analysis**, which examines the organization and function of social networks by mapping the patterns of interaction between network ties. For example, epidemiologists may use social network analysis to examine the transmission of infectious diseases, such as contact tracing during the coronavirus pandemic. Epidemiologists analyze network ties to help illustrate the possible trajectory of the illness and recommend isolation for infected and exposed individuals to help reduce further contagion. A diagram of a relationship Description automatically generated Chapter 36: Interacting with Others 208 36.5.02 Social Capital and the Strength of Weak Ties The connections individuals have in their networks can help them advance in society. The concept of **social capital** (see Concept 45.1.03 for more detail) describes the potential value embedded in an individual\'s network connections. Social capital can confer advantages, depending on who is part of the network and what resources (eg, information, opportunities) those network ties provide to help the individual. For example, if an individual has an aunt whose college roommate is the president of a prestigious medical school, the network connection could provide access to information to help them get admitted into the medical school. In addition, weak ties can connect an individual to social capital embedded in networks with which they have no direct relationships. The term \"the strength of weak ties\" describes the value of loose connections and indirect relationships. Strong ties can provide social support but often have overlapping network connections that do not provide additional resources for an individual. However, weak ties can offer access to new networks that may provide valuable opportunities, especially for employment, such as having a friend of a friend who works at the hospital where one hopes to get a job (shown in Figure 36.8). **Figure 36.8** Social capital and the strength of weak ties example.  **Organizations** 36.6.01 Types of Organizations In sociology, **organization** is a broad term used to describe various forms of complex groups (typically large secondary groups, see Concept 36.4.01) that cooperatively interact to achieve a specific purpose. Much of contemporary society depends on the work of organizations, and individuals\' lives frequently include experiences within organizations (eg, workplaces, stores, community groups). Organizations are designed in different ways and serve different purposes (see Figure 36.9). **Informal organizations** have a loose structure without clearly defined roles or rules. This type of organization is typically based on shared interests or needs and involves regular interaction but may be temporary. For example, a neighborhood children\'s playgroup is an informal organization convened to arrange play in a community but does not include specific roles or rules. Most organizations in contemporary society are **formal organizations** with explicit policies and roles in place to effectively achieve the organization\'s goals. This type of organization is designed to provide stability for its members and promotes reliable ways to complete activities. For example, a hospital is a formal organization designed to systematically treat patients using different roles (such as nurse and doctor) and clear procedures for effective care. **Figure 36.9** Examples of informal and formal organizations. 36.6.02 Bureaucracy A **bureaucracy** is a specific type of formal organization designed to maximize efficiency and productivity through standard policies and specialized tasks (eg, government agencies, large corporations). Sociologist Max Weber argued that bureaucracies are needed to manage the complex social systems of modern societies. Weber researched the common features of bureaucracies and developed an **ideal** A diagram of a child\'s life cycle Description automatically generated with medium confidence Chapter 36: Interacting with Others 210 **type** (ie, set of essential characteristics). Actual bureaucracies often have some, but not necessarily all, of the characteristics of the ideal type, which include the following: **Division of labor** increases efficiency through specialization in which individuals focus on a particular area of expertise. **Hierarchical structure** provides a clear chain of command, enabling everyone to understand their role. **Standardization** of clearly written rules and regulations ensures predictability and uniformity. **Impersonal** and **impartial** procedures for hiring/promoting/firing are based on merit. **Written records** of all operations are kept to monitor productivity and effectiveness. For example, a school system is a bureaucracy with a division of labor including teachers, administrators, and cafeteria staff with specialized tasks, and the roles are organized in a hierarchy with administrators leading the bureaucracy. There are clear rules and processes outlined in employee manuals, and administrators strive for impartiality in hiring practices (eg, hiring the most qualified candidate). Finally, written records of student grades and faculty performance are maintained to evaluate effective teaching and achievement of learning outcomes. Although bureaucracies are carefully planned organizations, some have been critiqued as inflexible and difficult to navigate due to the rigid rules and procedures (eg, the multiple steps required to register a car in a new state). Another critique, called the \"**iron law of oligarchy**,\" describes problems in bureaucratic leadership. Oligarchy refers to \"ruling by the few,\" and, over time, power within a bureaucracy becomes concentrated among a small number of leaders when the desire for personal power surpasses the organization\'s shared goals. 36.6.03 McDonaldization The characteristics of bureaucracies were useful in the development of early industrial systems, such as the division of labor on the automobile assembly line. More recently, other industries, including fast-food restaurants, have adopted similar processes to ensure that all franchises produce standardized products and experiences. Sociologist George Ritzer developed the concept of **McDonaldization** to describe the trend to incorporate elements of bureaucracies in many parts of society. McDonaldization includes four common features aimed to produce extreme productivity and reliability within organizations. However, unintended negative consequences are associated with each of the features. **Efficiency** produces optimization of the quickest and least expensive systems needed for the operations of the organization (eg, assembly-line production)*.* Designing efficient systems comes at the cost of individuality in which personal or individual needs are not accommodated (eg, personalizing an order is not available). McDonaldized organizations focus on **calculability**, which is used to understand the operations of the organization via measurable units, ensuring high quantities of production. For example, a fast-food restaurant has standard metrics for the time required to prepare each item, and each customer\'s order is timed to calculate the effectiveness of the system. The consequence of a focus on high quantities is a decrease in the quality of the product and experience. The feature of **predictability** ensures that all systems are uniform, which produces standardization of customer experiences. For example, the interactions at a fast-food restaurant are consistent and as expected because employees follow a script when taking orders and the store layout is the same at all locations. However, standardization of products and customer experiences can reduce the potential for uniqueness and/or innovation in the systems of operation. Last, **control** increases automation through reliance on non-human tools and technology such as using machines to cook or phone applications to order. Although an increased reliance on automation provides greater control of processes, the use of technology also reduces the need for a skilled workforce. Table 36.2 outlines the four main features and consequences of McDonaldization within fast-food restaurants, as well as the practice of medicine. Chapter 36: Interacting with Others 211 **Table 36.2** Features of McDonaldization. **McDonaldization** **Intended result** **Unintended result** **Fast-food example** **Medicine example** **Efficiency** ↑ Optimization ↓ Individuality Customer orders at register and cleans own table Patient goes to a \"Minute Clinic\" for specific concerns **Calculability** ↑ Quantity ↓ Quality Store success measured by number of products served Physicians compensated based on number of patients seen **Predictability** ↑ Uniformity ↑ Standardization ↓ Uniqueness All restaurant chains appear the same, have same products Standardized patient checklists make appointments uniform **Control** ↑ Automation ↓ Skilled workforce Automated machines cook products Electronic patient portals allow patients to see test result **Attraction** 37.1.01 Attraction **Interpersonal attraction**, which is defined as liking, or positive feelings toward another person, impacts relationships of all kinds (eg, professional, friendship, romantic). Studies have shown that multiple factors increase attraction (ie, liking) toward another person. These factors include: similarity (how similar the other person is to oneself, such as in attitudes or personality), physical attractiveness, believing one is liked in return, and/or proximity. Proximity (Figure 37.1) refers to being geographically close (eg, neighbors, classmates); mere exposure (being around the other person often) contributes to proximity. **Figure 37.1** Example of the role of proximity in interpersonal attractio **Aggression** 37.2.01 Aggression In social psychology, **aggression** is defined as behavior intended to harm another. One brain area that is important in aggression is the [amygdala](javascript:void(0)) (Concept 4.3.01). Researchers have shown that electrical stimulation of the amygdala can lead to displays of aggression. The **frustration-aggression theory** contends that individuals exhibit aggressive behaviors as a result of having a goal or effort blocked or defeated (ie, frustration). For example, a child who is not allowed to play with a desirable toy displays violent behavior toward a peer. Additionally, as Concept 18.1.01 introduces, the \"Bobo doll\" experiments demonstrated that [social](javascript:void(0)) [learning](javascript:void(0)) contributes to aggression. These studies showed that children who observed others acting aggressively toward a \"Bobo doll\" were more likely to display aggression towards the doll themselves. **Attachment** 37.3.01 Attachment **Attachment** reflects the emotional bond between child and caregiver. **Securely attached** children confidently explore their environment and return to their caregivers as a consistent and nurturing base. If their caregivers leave, securely attached children become upset but calm quickly. When their caregivers return, securely attached children express pleasure and seek contact. In contrast, **insecurely attached** children act indifferent or clingy toward caregivers and may show limited exploration. If their caregivers leave, insecurely attached children may act indifferent or become extremely upset and difficult to calm. When their caregivers return, insecurely attached children may act clingy or avoid contact. Secure and insecure attachment styles are compared in Table 37.1. **Table 37.1** Secure versus insecure attachment styles. Mary Ainsworth, a developmental psychologist, studied these attachment styles through the \"Strange Situation\" experiment. In this study, infants were left alone with a stranger and then reunited with a caregiver in order to reveal the infants\' attachment styles. Additionally, in a series of studies on the role of contact comfort in attachment, Harry Harlow examined the attachment of baby monkeys to artificial mothers. He found that baby monkeys spent more time with an artificial mother made of cloth that did not provide food than with one made of wire that did provide food