Chapter 33-35 . Language and Culture Overview

Language and Culture

• Language is a system of communication that uses symbols to represent ideas.
• Shared language helps transmit culture through communication about beliefs and customs.
• Cultural practices are behaviors common in a society, including gendered appearances and greetings.
• Rituals are traditional behaviors associated with specific ceremonies or celebrations.

Material vs Symbolic Culture

• Material culture refers to tangible artifacts used by society, like toys, dwellings, and machines.
• Changes in material culture can reflect societal values. For example, the prevalence of microwaves shows the importance of speed in modern society.
• Symbolic culture encompasses intangible elements of a culture, like values, symbols, and beliefs.
• Symbolic culture shapes how individuals interact with others and communicates shared meaning.

Types of Cultural Variation

• Dominant culture represents the widely accepted values, beliefs, and rituals of a society.
• Subculture is a group that shares values and practices with the dominant culture but also has distinct characteristics.
• Counterculture is a group that actively challenges or opposes the dominant culture.

Culture Shock

• Culture shock is a negative emotional response to encountering a new culture.
• Causes of culture shock include difficulty communicating and understanding unfamiliar symbols, norms, and values.

Assimilation and Multiculturalism

• Assimilation is the process of cultural integration where individuals adopt the dominant culture's values, symbols, and rituals.
• Multiculturalism promotes the recognition and accommodation of diverse cultures within a society.

Mass Media and Popular Culture

• Popular culture refers to beliefs, trends, and behaviors widespread and relevant in a society.
• Mass media, including television, newspapers, and the internet, plays a significant role in spreading trends and behaviors in popular culture.

Cultural Transmission and Diffusion

• Cultural transmission refers to the passing of cultural elements from one generation to the next.
• Cultural diffusion involves the spread of cultural elements from one society to another.

Socialization

• Socialization is the process by which societies transmit cultural elements to new generations.
• Through interactions and experiences, individuals learn the cultural skills and knowledge necessary to be a member of society.

Social Identity Categories

• Social identity categories, such as race/ethnicity, gender, and age, are significant in society and influence identity formation.
• Social identity categories are useful for sociologists to understand patterns of experiences and systems of inequality.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

• Erikson's theory describes eight stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan, each involving a crisis or conflict that can lead to growth or maladaptation.
• The stages are: trust vs mistrust (0-1 year), autonomy vs shame/doubt (1-3 years), initiative vs guilt (3-6 years), industry vs inferiority (6-12 years), identity vs role confusion (adolescence), intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood), generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood), and ego integrity vs despair (late adulthood).

Empiricism in Sociology

• Sociologists study society and social interaction through research based on empiricism.
• Research in sociology uses the same scientific method as research in psychology.
• Sociology relies on credible results and ethical research practices.

Types of Studies in Sociology

• Sociology research can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods.

Quantitative Research

• Quantitative research collects large-scale, numeric data.
• Quantitative research analyzes data statistically to determine relationships.
• Examples of quantitative research methods include surveys and secondary data analysis.

Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research gathers in-depth data in the form of words or cultural practices.
• Qualitative research analyzes data for patterns or themes.
• Examples of qualitative research methods include ethnography and focus groups.

Mixed Methods Research

• Mixed methods research uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches.
• Mixed methods research provides a more comprehensive understanding of a social phenomenon.

Language

• Language includes spoken, written, and nonverbal communication.
• Language relies on symbols to represent ideas.
• A shared language system is crucial for transmitting culture through communication.

Cultural Practices

• Cultural practices are the behaviors that members of a society typically engage in.
• Examples of cultural practices include clothing choices, hairstyles, grooming and greetings.
• Rituals are a type of cultural practice involving traditional behaviors associated with specific events.

Material versus Symbolic Culture

• Material culture consists of tangible artifacts used by society, such as tools, dwellings, art and machines.
• Symbolic culture consists of the intangible elements of a culture including beliefs, values and symbols.

Cultural Variations

• Subculture: A group that shares the values of the larger society but has its own distinct way of life.
• Counterculture: A group that opposes or rejects the norms and values of the dominant culture.

Cultural Change

• Cultural Lag: The gap between rapid changes in material culture and slower changes in symbolic culture.
• Culture Shock: Feelings of disorientation and uneasiness associated with being in an unfamiliar culture.

Agents of Socialization

• Agents of socialization are people and institutions that actively facilitate learning about social life.
• Family is a primary agent of socialization, teaching fundamental cultural elements.
• Friends/Peers often reinforce or contradict family values and practices.
• Schools/Workplace teach standards of behavior and cultural values.
• Mass Media shapes common knowledge, attitudes and trends within a society.

Primary and Secondary Socialization

• Primary socialization refers to early childhood experiences where individuals learn basic survival skills and cultural knowledge.
• Secondary socialization occurs throughout life, as individuals adapt to changes in roles and responsibilities.

Stages of Socialization (Erikson)

• Trust versus mistrust: Infants (0--1 year) who are loved and cared for develop a sense of trust; those who are not will experience mistrust.
• Autonomy versus shame: Toddlers (1--3 years) who are encouraged to develop independence will develop a sense of autonomy; those who are criticized will experience shame.
• Initiative versus guilt: Children (3--6 years) who successfully interact with others will develop a sense of initiative; those who are criticized will experience guilt.
• Industry versus inferiority: Children (6--12 years) who successfully develop new skills will feel industrious; those who are not encouraged will feel inferior.
• Identity versus role confusion: Adolescents (12--20 years) who successfully interact with peers will develop a sense of self-identity; those who do not will experience role confusion.
• Intimacy versus isolation: Adults (20--40 years) who can commit to and love others will develop a sense of intimacy; those who cannot will feel isolated.
• Generativity versus stagnation: Adults (40--65 years) who successfully contribute to society will feel productive; those who do not will feel stagnant.
• Integrity versus despair: Older adults (>65 years) who feel accomplished will gain a sense of integrity; those who do not will feel depressed and hopeless.

Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Pre-conventional level: Morality is controlled by external forces.
  • Stage 1: Individuals attempt to avoid punishment.
  • Stage 2: Individuals try to maximize their gain through an exchange of favors.
• Conventional level: Morality is defined by existing social norms and values.
  • Stage 3: Individuals want to be "good" and liked by others.
  • Stage 4: Individuals obey laws.
• Post-conventional level: Morality is based on universal moral principles.
  • Stage 5: Laws are viewed as flexible, considered in the context of helping the greatest number of people.
  • Stage 6: Justice and human dignity apply universally to all people.