Sociology and Psychology Lesson 1 PDF

LESSON 1: SOCIETY AND BEHAVIOR This process is useful because it allows us to vary our repertoire of behaviors according to what happenedin the past. It allows u...

LESSON 1: SOCIETY AND BEHAVIOR This process is useful because it allows us to vary our repertoire of behaviors according to what happenedin the past. It allows us to PART 1: PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS respond more adaptively in the present and future situations. Behavior is generally defined ways that individuals interact with their 3. Language environment, and can be observable or unobservable. According to William The human being is a social being. That’s why language is such an Glasser, Behavior has four components: Thinking, Feeling, Action, and important process. It gives us the ability to communicate with Physiology. The interplay between these components makes up the total others. This communication, in the case of humans, is carried out human experience. through a complex symbolic code, or language. The complexity of Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. This can include many our language allows us to accurately describe almost anything, be things, from how children learn a native language to how one finds a car in a it past, present, or future. crowded parking lot. Even the simplest human activities involve complex The usefulness of this process comes from our need to maintain psychological processing. complex social relationships that allow us to survive in a hostile When human behavior is so complex, where is a psychologist to start? Just like environment. Language allows us a mode of communication how a mechanic looks under the hood of a car to examine the function of each broad enough to maintain human societies. component in the engine, psychologists often start by examining the mind's 4. Thought underlying processes. Each of these basic psychological processes has a function, and they all work together to produce complex human behavior. This is a complex process that psychology defines as the process in charge of transforming information to organize it and give it TYPES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR meaning. The study of thought began with Aristotelian logic. 1. Molecular and Moral Behavior However, this was not an effective form of analysis, because the human being does not reason with logic. Molecular Behavior: It is an unexpected behavior that occurs without thinking. One example is suddenly closing eyes when something is about to The function of thought is a controversial issue. This is partly due this the eyes. to the existing terminological confusion around it. The most accepted idea is that its objective is to act as a control Moral Behavior: Unlike molecular behavior, this type of behavior occurs after mechanism in the face of situations presented to us. thinking. For example, a person changes the way when one sees a harmful thing. 5. Attention 2. Overt & Covert Behavior Attention focuses our resources on a series of stimuli while ignoring the rest. We receive a large number of stimuli all at once Overt Behavior: It is a visible type of behavior that can occur outside of human and we cannot attend to all at the same time. beings. Eating food, riding a bicycle, and playing football are some examples The attention process is adaptive because, if it did not exist, we Covert Behavior: Unlike overt behavior, this type of behavior is not visible. would find ourselves overwhelmed by stimuli. We would not know Thinking is a good example of covert behavior because no one can see us which to react to. It is paradoxical that the self-imposition of a thinking. cognitive limitation implies an evolutionary adaptation, but it’s true. 3. Voluntary and Involuntary Behavior 6. Memory Voluntary Behavior: It is a type of behavior that depends on human wants. We can characterize walking, speaking, and writing as voluntary behaviors. Memory allows us to encode information for future storage and retrieval. This is an essential process and closely related to all Involuntary Behavior: Unlike voluntary behavior, this type occurs naturally other processes. and without thinking. Breathing air is a perfect example of involuntary behavior. Memory allows us to remember explicit information such as the capital of France or procedural information like how to ride a bike. BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING BEHAVIOR Memory exists because it is really useful to have information about our past experiences at our disposal. This allows us to make 8 basic psychological processes guesses about the future and act on them. Without this process, 1. Perception the other basic psychological processes would not exist, since all are strongly supported by memory. Perception is responsible for us having an “image” of the reality that surrounds us. It processes the information we receive from the external stimuli of our 7. Motivation senses. Motivation is responsible for providing the body with resources to Perception is responsible for organizing and giving meaning to all sensory perform a behavior. It is the process in charge of activating the stimuli. The function of this is obvious: knowing the environment around us body and putting it in the ideal state. Another important aspect of allows us to move and interact with it. These are basic and necessary skills to motivation is direction. Not only does it prepare the body, it is also achieve an efficient adaptation. responsible for directing behavior among possible options. 2. Learning The function of motivation is to get the individual to direct their behavior toward their goals and objectives. It prevents them from This is how we modify and acquire knowledge, abilities, skills, behaviors, etc. It standing still. This process is closely related to emotion and works through what happened in the past. Learning also helps us relate our learning. behaviors with their consequences. It is closely related to memory. 8. Emotion The study of learning is given largely to the field of behaviorism. This gave us theories of classical and operant conditioning to explain how we learn. Emotions are reactions to external stimuli. They allow us to guide our behavior and act quickly in response to the demands of our environment.  This debate focuses largely on whether inherent, biological factors or developmental, “experiential” factors play the dominant role in Emotions have three components: shaping who people are and how they behave. Think about your own level of extraversion, or how outgoing you are. Someone who appeals Somatic: the physiological changes provoked by emotion to the "nature” side of this debate might cite evidence that genes play a role in determining levels of extraversion and argue that you were Behavioral: the spectrum of behavior triggered by an emotion “born” to have a certain level of extraversion. Someone on the “nurture” side might point toward research on how one’s Feeling: the subjective experience of the individual environment helps to shape levels of extraversion as well as other basic personality traits. Emotion manages our behavior in a fast and effective way. Most decisions lack enough importance for us to spend a lot of time on. That’s where emotion 2. Materialism vs. Constructionism comes in. It is important to understand that any decision is mediated by our Some academic psychologists focus on the physical (i.e., material) underpinnings emotions to some degree. of behavior, based on the idea that at the end of the day, behavior is nothing more than the result of neural activity. Constructionists, on the other hand, downplay PERSPECTIVES ON MODERN PSYCHOLOGY material causes of behavior and instead focus on how psychological reality is ultimately found in the meaning that people give psychological concepts in social 1. Psychodynamic perspective. contexts. A materialist might see someone’s high level of emotional responsivity as nothing more than a particular set of genes and a set of physiological This perspective which started from Sigmund Freud’s work, views that human structures, such as the reticular activation system, being set a certain way. On the behavior emphasizes therole of early childhood experiences, the unconscious other hand, a constructionist might see someone who is seen as highly mind, and interpersonal relationships to treat mental illnesses and explain emotionally responsive as having been shaped to behave in an emotional manner human behavior. based on various social roles and social expectations in one’s community Freud believes that the human is composed of three elements: id, ego, and 3. Person vs. Situation. superego. There is often debate regarding whether factors within people themselves cause their behaviors or if situational cues play a more critical role. 1.1 Id- known as the persona’s main source of initial and unconscious desires. Dispositionists focus on internal causes of behavior, such as personality traits or 1.2 Ego- this psyche aspect is the one that deals with the pressure of the real emotional states. world.1.3 Superego- this part of the human psyche is the last to develop and is Situationists focus more on factors in situations that exert influences on behavior. responsible for our internal morals, standards, and ideals. 4. Consistency vs. Change Across Development. 2. Cognitive perspective. Whether people can change who they are across the life span is another hotly debated topic in psychology. Some argue that our personality becomes largely The cognitive perspective focuses on the human mental processes that fixed during late childhood. Others argue that there is potential for change. include thinking, memory, decision-making, language, and problem-solving. It Research into this issue is extremely intriguing, with some data suggesting that depicts how the human mind works by comparing it to a computer. The main there is little change in one’s basic character across life and other data suggesting goal is to figure out how the mind acquires, process, store, and utilize that there can be substantial change in personality over the long term. information. 5. Cultural Universals vs. Cultural Variability. 2. Behavioral perspective. Are people the same wherever you go? Some will say yes, and some will say no. To be sure, there are clearly ways that humans are the same across the globe. For This perspective is focused on humans’ learned behavior. Its main concern is instance, using a smile to express happiness seems to be a human universal. On learning how behaviors were learned and reinforced in an individual. Behavioral the other hand, there seem to be important ways that one’s culture shapes perspective is usually used by therapists in treating a mental health condition to behavior. This is why religious activities often look quite different from one explain the cause of the illness. another across religious groups. The question of behavioral universality vs. cultural variability is a hot one, and some of the best research being done by psychologists 4. Cross-cultural perspective. examines questions related to this particular debate. This particular perspective examines human behavior throughout different cultures. There are 2 components that researcher’s study in order to determine how culture affects our thinking and behavior. The first one is the individualistic PART 2: SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS culture while the second one is the collectivistic culture. DEFINITION OF TERMS folkways: direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and 5. Biological perspective. expressions of a culture This area of psychology previously known as biopsychology or physiological formal norms: established, written rules psychology highlights the physical and biological bases of human behavior. informal norms: casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to Biological psychologists study how genetics or damaged areas in the brain can mores: the moral views and principles of a group affect behavior and personality. Some of its subjects include not only the brain but norms: the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are also the nervous system, the immune system, and the endocrine system. It uses structured tools such as magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography to bourgeoisie: those who owned the means of production (i.e. factory owners in observe the brain. the Industrial Revolution) 6. Humanistic perspective. Psychologists on this perspective focus on what makes human wants to change, class consciousness: the awareness that one is a proletarian, a worker, and has grow, and develop their personality. This area of psychology examines the an understanding of responsibility of motivation on behavior and thought, making self-actualization an solidarity in a class struggle against the bourgeoisie essential concept. conflict theory: a theory that examines society as a competition for limited resources 7. Evolutionary perspective. double consciousness: a term used to describe an individual whose identity is Psychologists who use this approach study how human evolution has an impact on divided into several psychological phenomena. This study proposes that human mental processes exist facets because of the purpose that they serve on evolution, including how they can aid false consciousness: proletarians are unable to identify and understand their human survival and reproduction. own class position and exploitation FIVE LONG-STANDING PSYCHOLOGICAL DEBATES feminist: one who believes that females should be equal to males feminist theory: the critical analysis of the way gender affects societal 1. Nature vs. Nurture. structures, power, and inequality  intersectional theory: utilizes multiple identities (such as race, ethnicity, sexual religious/redemptive movements: movements that work to orientation, promote inner change or spiritual economic class, etc.) as important to understanding inequality growth in individuals patriarchy: a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to positions revolutionary movements: movements that seek to completely of power and sources of income) that are based on the belief that males (patri change every aspect of society means “father”) are and should be dominant social movement organization: a single social movement group power elite: the dominant individuals and groups within the military, business social movement sector: the multiple social movement industries in world, governments, a society, even if they have and other institutions who are at the top of the power hierarchy widely varying constituents and goals proletariat: those who labor in the means of production (workers) and who do not possess or NORMS control capital, as the bourgeoisie does Norms define how to behave in accordance with what society has dysfunctions: social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the defined as good, right, and important, and most members of the operation of society society adhere to them. functionalism/structural-functional theory: a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure Formal norms are established written rules. They are behaviors with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and serve the most individuals that make up people. Laws are formal norms, but so are employee manuals, college that society entrance exam requirements, and “no running” signs at swimming latent functions: the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social pools. Formal norms are the most specific and clearly stated of the process various types of norms, and they are the most strictly enforced. But manifest functions: sought consequences of a social process even formal norms are enforced to varying degrees and are reflected social facts: the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, in cultural values. and all of the cultural rules that govern social life THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN THE STUDY OF SOCIETY social institutions: patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs 1. symbolic interactionism theory social solidarity: the social ties that bind a group of people together such as Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on kinship, shared location, meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and religion and to symbols. Communication—the exchange of meaning through constructivism: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people reality is what make sense of their social worlds. humans cognitively construct it to be dramaturgical analysis: a technique sociologists use in which they view society Charles Horton Cooley introduced the looking-glass self (1902) to through the describe how a person’s sense of self grows out of interactions with metaphor of theatrical performance, including role improvisation others, and he proposed a threefold process for this development: “Looking-glass” is an archaic term for a mirror, so Cooley theorized looking-glass self: concept that the development of self occurs through that we “see” ourselves when we interact with others. interactions with others, based on our understanding of how others perceive us George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is considered a founder of symbolic interactionism: a theoretical perspective through which scholars symbolic interactionism, though he never published his work on this examine the relationship subject (LaRossa and Reitzes 1993). of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols) 2. social conflict theory dominant gender ideology: the assumption that physiological sex differences Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited between males and resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified females are related to differences in their character, behavior, and ability (i.e., with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx their gender) (1818–1883), who saw society as being made up of two classes, the heterosexism: is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination that favor male- bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the proletariat (workers), who must female sexuality and compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and relationships housing, employment, education, and leisure time. feminist: one who believes that females should be equal to males feminist movement: a series of political campaigns for reforms on issues such as In the economic sphere, Marx focused on the “mode of production” reproductive (e.g., the industrial factory) and “relations of production” (e.g., rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women’s suffrage, sexual unequal power between workers and factory owners). The harassment, and bourgeoisie owns and controls the means of production, which leads sexual violence, all of which fall under the label of feminism and the feminist to exploitation due to the profit motive. movement feminist theory: the critical analysis of the way gender affects societal structures, 3. structural-functional theory power, and Structural-functional theory, also called functionalism, sees society as inequality a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological intersectional theory: utilizes multiple identities of females (i.e. such as race, and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew ethnicity, sexual out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert orientation, class, etc.) as important to understanding inequality Spencer (1820–1903), who saw similarities between society and the patriarchy: a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to human body. He argued that just as the various organs of the body positions of power, work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of relationship to sources of income) that are based on the belief that males (patri society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). means “father”) are dominant Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change and standpoint theory: theory that feminist social science should be practiced from survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex the standpoint of system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together women to maintain stability (Durkheim 1893) alternative movements: social movements that limit themselves to self- improvement changes in 4. feminist theory. individuals Feminist theory is a type of conflict theory that examines inequalities reform movements: movements that seek to change something specific about in gender-related issues. It uses the conflict approach to examine the the social structure maintenance of gender roles and uneven power relations. Radical feminism, in particular, considers the role of the family in perpetuating male either pleasure or reason dominance (note that “radical” means “at the root”). Freud believed that individuals with stronger ID are less likely to Patriarchy refers to a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to conform to the expectations of society when it violates the pleasure positions of power, relationship to sources of income) that are based on the belief principle; while individuals with stronger SUPER-EGO are less likely that men and women are dichotomous and unequal categories of being. to engage in a socially unacceptable behavior, regardless of an existing opportunity to exercise reason or experience pleasure. 5. Standpoint Theory Individuals with well-developed ego, on the other hand, tend to act Dorothy Smith’s development of standpoint theory was a key innovation in in response to reason and logical thinking; they are more likely to sociology that enabled these issues to be seen and addressed in a systematic way inhibit the urge to satisfy needs (pleasure) until appropriate actions by examining one’s position in life (Smith 1977). are found. 6. Intersectional Theory Elements of Personality According to Raymond Cattell: Recall that intersectional theory examines multiple, overlapping identities and 1. Source Traits – underlying basic factors of an individual’s social contexts (Black, Latina, Asian, gay, trans, working class, poor, single parent, personality working, stay-at-home, immigrant, undocumented, etc.) and the unique, various 2. Surface Traits – the observable behavior resulting from lived experiences within these spaces. Intersectional theory combines critical race source traits theory, gender conflict theory, and critical components of Marx’s class theory. Kimberlé Crenshaw describes it as a “prism for understanding certain kinds of Cattel proposed that Personality is “that which permits a prediction of what a problems. person will do in a given situation.” He argued that individual differences between personalities can be understood by assigning categories (types) to LESSON 2: SOCIAL INFLUENCE, MORAL DEVELOPMENT, people; and believed that each person has a unique blend of traits with varying strength of expression. He identified 16 personality traits that can be AND CONFORMITY measured and defined. From these 16 traits, he derived what he referred to as five global factors: (1) Extraversion, (2) Anxiety, (3) Tough Mindedness, (4) Conformity is when we behave according to how we Independence, and (5) Self-Control. are asked or expected to behave, directly or indirectly. Sometimes it is easy to carry out a role expected of us, Extraversion – a measure of a person’s general social sometimes it’s difficult, sometimes, maybe impossible. participation level. Anxiety – a measure of a person’s level of reactivity, Conformity– the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, vigilance, tension, and apprehension. politics, or being like-minded; can occur in the presence of others, or when the Tough mindedness – a measure of a person’s tendency individual is alone; may also refer to a change in behavior caused by another to deal with problems either at the cognitive or person or group emotional level. Independence – a measure of Self-determination. Types of Conformity Self-control – a measure of the person’s tendency to 1. Identification – occurs when people conform to what is control one’s urges expected of them based on their social roles. 2. Internalization – occurs when we change our behavior because Personality Factors that contribute to Stronger Self-control we want to be like the other person 1. low liveliness (high seriousness) 3. Public Compliance – a superficial change in behavior 2. high perfectionism (including the public expression of opinions) that is not 3. high rule-consciousness accompanied by an actual change in one’s private opinion. 4. low abstractedness (high practicality) Non-Conformity– failure or refusal to conform to Cattel noted that certain traits contribute to whether one exhibits prevailing rule or practice. “lack of restraint” or “self-control”. He believed that individuals with higher self-control are more likely to behave in a manner that Correlates of Conformity is socially acceptable; they are also less likely to break rules or challenge the status quo. A. Social Influence – Social attitudes that impact the strengthening or weakening of beliefs and behaviors, to match that of those around us. Morality – an individual’s growing sense of what is right and wrong Types of Social Influence: – a code of conduct that is derived from one’s culture, religion, or 1. Informational Influence – happens when people change their personal philosophy behavior in order to be correct; also happens when the person lacks – guides one’s actions, behaviors, or thoughts knowledge and looks to the group for information and direction. Morality recognition – the conscious distinction between right 2. Normative social influence – occurs when we express opinions and wrong / good and evil; respect for and obedience to rules and or behaves in ways that help us to be accepted or that keep us from right conduct being isolated or rejected by others. Moral Development – focuses on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality from infancy to adulthood Social Comparison – the process of comparing our opinions with those of others to gain an appropriate appraisal of the validity of Theoretical Concepts explaining Moral Behavior an opinion or behavior. 1. Morality and the Super Ego (Sigmund Freud) Sources of Social Influence There is an existing tension between the needs of the society and the 1. Majority Influence – occurs when the beliefs held by the needs of the individual. As the person matures, the individual’s selfish larger number of individuals in the current social group desires are repressed and replaced by the values of important socializing prevail; more common. agents (such as parents) in one’s life. 2. Minority Influence – occurs when the beliefs held by the 2. Morality and Social Learning (Albert Bandura) smaller number of individuals in the current social group Socialization is the primary force behind moral development. Moral prevail; less common. behavior can be acquired by observing and imitating others. 3. Morality and Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) B. Personality – characteristic patterns of The individual’s construction, construal, and interpretation of morality thought, feelings and behavior. from a social-cognitive and social-emotional perspective is a necessary Elements of Personality According to Sigmund Freud: agent to morality recognition. 1. Id – prioritizes what is pleasurable, regardless of reason 2. Ego – prioritizes reason over pleasure 3. Superego – prioritizes internalized values of society over 4. Morality and Moral Reasoning (Lawrence Kohlberg) Moral reasoning influences a person’s willingness or unwillingness to engage in certain behaviors and can be classified into levels. Each level presents a unique source of evaluation of right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable. Individuals often initially evaluate the acceptability of a behavior based on the resulting pain or pleasure, but may eventually learn to apply reasoning based on social conditions or personal convictions. Levels of Moral Reasoning (Lawrence Kohlberg): 1. Pre-conventional Level – focus on reward and punishment brought about by certain behaviors. 2. Conventional Level – focus on social contract or a sense of responsibility to contribute to the society one is part of and behave in a manner that is acceptable. 3. Post Conventional Level – focus on conscious principles and personal convictions governing one’s actions 5. Morality and Religion Many religions have various frameworks regarding personal behavior meant to guide believers in determining right and wrong. Religious belief systems are often very strong regulator of human behaviors. These also shape a lot of society’s roles and norms, when a specific religion is prevalent. Value judgements can vary greatly between religions, past and present. Divine Command Theory – refers to the act of equating morality to adherence to authoritative commands from a holy book. Religion and conformity is among the widely studied field in sociology. Many religions have value frameworks regarding General Classification of World Religions: personal behavior meant to guide adherents in determining a. Monotheistic religions – believe in only one God between right and wrong. An example of this is the “good thoughts, b. Polytheistic religions – believe in many gods good words, and good deeds” concept, common to most religions. Abrahamic Religions – a group of Semitic-originated, On the issue of the ability of religious to provide value frameworks: monotheistic religions that claim decent from Judaism of Religious commentators have asserted that a moral life cannot be led without ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. an absolute lawgiver as a guide (God). Other observers assert moral behavior does not rely on religious tenets. The Three Largest Abrahamic Religion: Contemporary commentators point to ethical challenges within various (a) Christianity; religions that conflict with contemporary social norms. (b) Islam; and (c) Judaism Belongingness is a universal need. As social beings, we thrive in environments where we can foster nurturing relationships and smooth interpersonal 4 Major Abrahamic Religions connections with other people. So much in fact, that psychologist William Christianity – Abrahamic religion based on the teachings Glasser, proponent of Reality Therapy, went as far as claim that “all long lasting of Jesus of Nazareth psychological problems are relationship problems.” Islam – Abrahamic religion based on the teachings of Mohammed Conformity Judaism – Abrahamic religion based on teachings of Moses is an important element in society, often serving as a stabilizing agent. Society and the Prophets with higher levels of conformity among its members are less likely to experience Messianic Judaism – a combination of Judaism and drastic changes in its culture, customs, and traditions, and the prevailing norms Christianity. are more likely to be passed on to next generations. This, however, may become problematic when existing norms are rigid, oppressive, and/or invite opportunity to oppress, discriminate, or abuse.